When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planni

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

## Building a strong foundation
The old adage “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” couldn’t be more apt when it comes to earthquake preparedness. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [emphasizes](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/seismic-building-codes) the importance of structural integrity in minimizing earthquake damage. For homeowners and businesses, this means:
1. Evaluating your building’s structure, especially if it’s older than current seismic design provisions in local building codes.
2. Considering retrofits to meet or exceed current building codes.
3. Paying special attention to unreinforced masonry, which is particularly vulnerable during earthquakes.

<figure>

![An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/UFmnZWLizSbuaiEcORnB/orig) 

<figcaption>
An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead

</figcaption>
</figure>



## Securing the inside
While a strong building is crucial, what’s inside matters too. Non-structural elements can pose significant risks during an earthquake. Earthquake experts [recommend](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/how-to-protect-your-home-before-an-earthquake) several steps to secure your interior spaces:
* Anchor heavy furniture, appliances, and shelving to wall studs.
* Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
* Install flexible gas and water connections on appliances.
* Apply safety film to windows and glass doors to prevent shattering.
* Brace heavy machinery, containers, and tanks that could shift or rupture.
These measures not only protect your belongings but also reduce the risk of injury from falling objects.
## Preparing for the aftermath
Earthquake damage isn’t limited to the shaking itself. Secondary effects, like fires, can be just as devastating. The California Earthquake Authority [emphasizes](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/what-should-you-do-after-an-earthquake) the importance of post-earthquake preparedness:
* Regularly check fire safety equipment, including extinguishers and water tanks.
* Assemble disaster preparedness kits with essentials like dust masks, portable chargers, and battery-powered radios.
* Train staff or family members on emergency procedures, including how to shut off gas, electricity, and water.
Did you know that after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, it was the subsequent fires that [caused](https://www.1906eqconf.org/plenarySessions.htm) about 90% of the total damage? This underscores the critical importance of fire prevention and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/OlsPCfKyRotKQppzPQnu/orig)

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The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Community-wide efforts
Individual preparedness is crucial, but community-wide efforts can have an even broader impact. The Seismological Society of America [recommends](https://www.seismosoc.org/us-government-relations/actions-managing-earthquake-risk/) several actions for managing earthquake risk on a larger scale:
1. Developing a culture of preparedness through education and awareness programs.
2. Investing in retrofitting or replacing essential facilities like hospitals, schools, and emergency response centers.
3. Collaborating on region-wide, multi-organizational plans for earthquake response and recovery.
Japan’s nationwide earthquake early warning system, [implemented](https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/eew.html#:~:text=The%20Japan%20Meteorological%20Agency%20(JMA),such%20as%20TV%20and%20radio) in 2007, provides a few seconds to a minute of warning before strong shaking begins, allowing people to take immediate protective actions.
## The role of technology
Advancements in technology play an increasingly important role in earthquake preparedness. While we can’t predict earthquakes with precision, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds of advance notice. Many cities and states now offer free earthquake alert apps that can give residents a brief heads-up before the shaking starts.

For instance, the [ShakeAlert system](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-early-warning-overview) on the U.S. West Coast can [detect](https://www.usgs.gov/news/entire-us-west-coast-now-has-access-shakealert-earthquake-early-warning) earthquakes as they begin, potentially providing valuable seconds of warning to areas farther from the epicenter. This time can be crucial for automated systems to slow trains, open firehouse doors, or initiate other protective measures.
## Innovative building technologies
Engineers and architects are continually developing new technologies to make buildings more earthquake-resistant. Some fascinating innovations include:
1. [Base isolation](https://www.taylordevices.com/base-isolation/#:~:text=A%20base%20isolation%20system%20is,an%20earthquake%20is%20reduced%20significantly.): This technique involves placing flexible pads between a building and its foundation, allowing the structure to move somewhat independently of the ground during an earthquake.
2. [Tuned mass dampers](https://engineering.purdue.edu/~ce573/Documents/Intro%20to%20Structural%20Motion%20Control_Chapter4.pdf#:~:text=A%20tuned%20mass%20damper%20(TMD),phase%20with%20the%20structural%20motion): Large weights placed at the top of tall buildings that move in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, helping to counteract the earthquake’s motion.
3. [Shape memory alloys](https://phys.org/news/2012-02-shape-memory-alloys-earthquake-resistant.html): These materials can “remember” their original shape after being deformed, potentially allowing buildings to return to their original position after an earthquake.
4. [Self-centering systems](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2020/8859881): These designs allow buildings to rock during an earthquake and then return to their original position, minimizing structural damage.

<figure>

![Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/CqofyeijfVJrZUTDdmnJ/orig)  

<figcaption>
Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Seismic deconvolution and masking
[Seismic deconvolution](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8105-8_4#:~:text=Deconvolution%20is%20a%20general%20term,the%20seismic%20sources%20and%20receivers) removes effects that mask primary reflected events on a seismogram, such as absorption, reverberation, and ghosting. This technique helps obtain clearer seismic data, crucial for understanding geological structures and making informed decisions about building designs and retrofits.

Additionally, explainable artificial intelligence (AI) is also [being used](https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06682) to design masks for self-supervised seismic denoising. This approach helps suppress noise in seismic data without requiring prior knowledge of the noise itself, making it a fully automated denoising procedure. This technology can significantly improve the accuracy of seismic data interpretation, leading to better earthquake preparedness and response strategies.
## “Floating house”
One of the most intriguing innovations in earthquake-resistant housing comes from Japan. Air Danshin Systems Inc., a Japanese company, has developed a groundbreaking technology that allows houses to temporarily “float” above the ground during earthquakes. Here’s how Air Danshin’s [system](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) works:
* The house is built with an additional foundation, a sensor, and an air compressor.
* When the sensor detects the initial tremors of an earthquake, it sends a signal to the external air compressor.
* Within 0.5 to 1 second, the compressor activates and pumps compressed air between the earthquake-proof foundation and the base of the house.
* This action lifts the entire structure approximately 3 cm (about 1.2 inches) off the ground.
* The house remains elevated during the earthquake, effectively isolating it from ground movements.
* Once the tremors subside, the air is gradually released, and the house settles back onto its foundation.
Air Danshin [claims](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) that a house not in contact with the ground during an earthquake will not shake, thus preventing damage. However, this technology has limitations. The 3 cm lift height may not be sufficient for earthquakes with significant vertical movement. Additionally, the system comes with a substantial cost.

Despite these limitations, Air Danshin’s floating house technology represents an innovative approach to earthquake-resistant housing. While it may not be a complete solution to earthquake damage, it could be a valuable piece of a larger strategy for improving seismic safety.
## Economic impact and insurance
The economic toll of earthquakes can be staggering. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, the [second-most](https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/which-state-has-the-most-earthquakes-in-the-us#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20Alaska%20the,fact%20of%20life%20in%20Alaska) seismically-active U.S. states, [caused](https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/earthquakes/northridge) an estimated $20 billion in damage. Earthquake insurance can play a crucial role in recovery, but standard homeowner’s insurance policies typically don’t cover earthquake damage.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/wXmpugRBGGinFKpBiBVm/orig)   

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom

</figcaption>
</figure>

In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) provides most residential earthquake insurance policies. [As of 2022](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/insurance#:~:text=Despite%20experiencing%2090%25%20of%20the,California's%20residents%20have%20earthquake%20insurance.), only about 10% of California homeowners had earthquake insurance, highlighting a significant gap in financial preparedness.

While we can’t prevent earthquakes, we can certainly mitigate their impact. By focusing on structural integrity, securing non-structural elements, preparing for aftermath scenarios, fostering community preparedness, and leveraging technology, we can significantly reduce the damage and disruption caused by seismic events.

Remember, earthquake preparedness is an ongoing process, not a one-time effort. Regular assessments, updates to your preparedness plans, and staying informed about the latest safety recommendations are all part of a comprehensive approach to minimizing earthquake damage.

As we continue to improve our understanding of seismic risks and develop new mitigation techniques, we move closer to a future where earthquakes, while still formidable natural events, no longer pose the catastrophic threat they once did.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android. 

Shaking things up: How to minimize earthquake damage

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring an

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring and terrifying reality of tsunamis, one of nature’s most destructive forces.

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring and terrifying reality of tsunamis, one of nature’s most destructive forces.
## What are tsunamis?

<figure>

![Waves crashing against a pier during a storm. Image by George Desipris/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/hgGFJzIHefbpWhVJNOTk/orig)

<figcaption>
Waves crashing against a pier during a storm. Image by George Desipris
</figcaption>
</figure>

Tsunamis, often mistakenly called “tidal waves,” are series of ocean waves triggered by the sudden displacement of large volumes of water. Unlike wind-generated waves that only affect the ocean’s surface, tsunamis [involve](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) water movement from the surface all the way to the ocean floor.

The name “tsunami” comes from Japanese and translates literally to “[harbor wave](https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-definition).” Although its original meaning isn’t entirely descriptive, it’s the term we’ve adopted for these phenomena.

When a tsunami is generated, it can travel at [astonishing speeds](https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what-we-do/disasters/tsunamis) in the open ocean — up to 500 mph (800 km/h), comparable to a jet airplane. However, in deep water, tsunami waves may be barely noticeable, often only a foot or two high (30–60 cm). It’s only as they approach shallower coastal waters that tsunamis slow down and grow in height, potentially reaching over 100 feet (30 meters) tall.

The destructive potential of tsunamis is staggering. Between 1998 and 2017, tsunamis [caused](https://www.who.int/health-topics/tsunamis#tab=tab_1) more than 250,000 deaths globally, including over 227,000 deaths in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami alone. The 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan [reached](https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/our-impact/story/ten-years-after-japan-tsunami) heights of up to 133 feet (40.5 meters) and penetrated up to 6 miles (10 km) inland, causing widespread destruction and triggering a major nuclear disaster.
## What causes tsunamis?
The most common cause of tsunamis is underwater earthquakes. When tectonic plates suddenly shift along a fault line beneath the ocean, they can displace enormous amounts of water, setting a tsunami in motion. However, tsunamis can also be triggered by:
* Underwater landslides
* Onshore landslides in which large volumes of debris fall into the water 
* Volcanic eruptions
* Meteorite impacts (rare but possible)
## How does a tsunami wave work?

<figure>

![Tsunami progression. Image by BBC/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/bUvMXRdgklMdwRIaEQKs/orig)

<figcaption>
Tsunami progression. Image by BBC
</figcaption>
</figure>

The [mechanics of a tsunami](https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-do-tsunamis-form) wave are fascinating, involving complex physical processes that transform a barely noticeable disturbance in the open ocean into a potentially devastating force at the coastline. Let’s explore the journey of a tsunami from its origin to its coastal impact:
1. **Activation**: When an underwater disturbance occurs, such as an earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption, it displaces a large volume of water. This [displacement](https://www.maine.gov/mema/maine-prepares/preparedness-library/tsunami-wave-mechanics) can be caused by vertical movement of the ocean floor, often less than three feet (one meter), but covering a vast area. The enormous volume of water displaced creates a series of waves that spread out in all directions from the source.
2. **Build**: In the open ocean, tsunami waves are deceptively small. However, what makes tsunamis unique is their incredibly long wavelength, which can [stretch](https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-do-tsunamis-form) up to 125 miles (200 km) between wave crests. This long wavelength means that the entire water column, from surface to seafloor, is in motion, even in the deepest parts of the ocean. The long wavelength also contributes to the tsunami’s remarkable speed.
3. **Formation**: Each wave has a peak and a trough, and sometimes the trough of a tsunami reaches land before the peak. This causes a [drawback](https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-drawback) where the tide seems to recede hundreds of meters further than usual. This drawback lasts for about six minutes before the peak reaches shore.
4. **Approach**: As the tsunami approaches shallower coastal waters, its behavior changes dramatically. The wave speed decreases due to friction with the seafloor, but the energy of the wave remains largely constant. This causes the wave height to increase significantly, a process known as [shoaling](https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/transform.html).
5. **Impact**: When a tsunami reaches the shore, it can manifest as a massive wall of water or, deceptively, as a rapid rise in water level — like a river flowing incredibly fast. Tsunamis don’t just crash and recede like regular waves do. They can continue to [surge](https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tsunamis/tsunami-propagation) inland for several minutes, carrying debris and causing widespread destruction.
## Measuring tsunami strength
<figure>

![Exaggerated tsunami devastating a city. Image by DALL·E/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/phwIUfkQavWXHftasthW/orig)

<figcaption>
Exaggerated tsunami devastating a city. Image by DALL·E
</figcaption>
</figure>

Several scales and methods are used to quantify the size and impact of tsunamis:

**Tsunami intensity scales**
* Sieberg-Ambraseys scale: This is a 6-point scale that describes the physical effects of a tsunami. However, it has been [criticized](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) for not being detailed enough for modern use.
* Papadopoulos-Imamura scale: A more recent 12-point scale that aims to provide a more detailed and sensitive measure of tsunami intensity. It’s [based](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) on the tsunami’s effects on humans, objects, and buildings, similar to earthquake intensity scales.

**Tsunami magnitude scales**
* Soloviev-Imamura scale: This scale [uses](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) the maximum tsunami wave height to calculate a magnitude value.
* Abe magnitude scale: Developed by Katsuyuki Abe, this scale [relates](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) tsunami energy to earthquake magnitude and distance from the source.

**Other measurement and description methods**
* Inundation and run-up: These [measure](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) how far inland and how high above sea level the tsunami waters reach, respectively.
* Flow depth: This [refers](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) to the depth of tsunami waters at various onshore locations.
* DART (deep-ocean assessment and reporting of tsunamis) systems: These deep-ocean buoys can [detect](https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tsunamis/detection-warning-and-forecasting) and measure tsunamis as they pass, providing real-time data for warning systems.
## Mitigating tsunami damage
<figure>

![A modern seawall on the Isle of Wight, England. Image by Oikos-team/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/ZJmMXHnuktEOElrIUvom/orig)

<figcaption>
A modern seawall on the Isle of Wight, England. Image by Oikos-team
</figcaption>
</figure>

Given the immense destructive potential of tsunamis, early warning systems are crucial. NASA and other agencies are working on improving tsunami detection and warning capabilities. For example, a network of over 1,600 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ground stations can [detect](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2019.00350/full) tectonic activity and [feed](https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-planet/sizing-a-tsunami) data into models that predict potential tsunami activity.

Other mitigation strategies include building seawalls and floodgates, implementing evacuation plans, and conducting public education programs. Some countries, like Japan, even maintain or plant [coastal forests](https://phys.org/news/2016-08-seawalls-coastal-forests-japan-tsunami.html) to act as natural barriers against tsunamis.

What makes tsunamis particularly dangerous is their unpredictability. Unlike hurricanes or tornadoes, which can be forecast days in advance, tsunamis can strike with little warning, making rapid and accurate early warning systems vital for saving lives.

Understanding the science behind tsunamis not only satisfies our curiosity about these powerful natural phenomena but also helps us develop better prediction and protection strategies. As we continue to study and respect the awesome power of our oceans, we improve our ability to coexist with these forces of nature.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app [Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android](https://redirect.appmetrica.yandex.com/serve/1037341602000971858).

The incredible power of tsunamis: Nature’s most destructive force


As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunte

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

Hurricane hunters are [members](https://hurricanescience.org/science/observation/aircraftrecon/hurricanehunters/) of the U.S. Air Force Reserve’s 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Hunters. Their mission is to penetrate tropical cyclones and [collect](https://journals.flvc.org/flgeog/article/view/84431/81541) real-time measurements of wind speed, air pressure, temperature, and humidity within the storm. The Air Force Reserve [has](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) 10 full-time crews and 10 part-time crews, supported by 278 maintenance personnel and 57 additional support staff.

## A perilous journey

![Hurricane hunters fly into the eye of Hurricane Ida. Image by the National Hurricane Center](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/CbeiwqvBFvkUmSBNbviH/orig)  

Flying into a hurricane is an incredibly dangerous endeavor. As the aircraft penetrates the eyewall — the ring of intense thunderstorms surrounding the eye — it encounters extreme turbulence, with wind speeds changing by over 100 mph in just a few seconds. Powerful updrafts and downdrafts can toss the plane violently, subjecting the crew to immense gravitational forces.

Despite these hazards, hurricane hunters press on, typically [flying](https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/weather/2023/08/22/meet-the-teams-that-fly-into-hurricanes-for-a-living) at altitudes between 500 and 10,000 feet (150–3000 m). Their specially equipped aircraft, such as the Lockheed WC-130J and the Lockheed WP-3D Orion, are designed to withstand the punishing conditions within a hurricane.

## Vital data for forecasting
The data collected by hurricane hunters is invaluable for meteorologists at the National Hurricane Center (NHC). By measuring the central pressure and wind speeds within the storm, forecasters can better predict a hurricane's intensity, track, and potential impacts.

This information is then fed into sophisticated [computer models](https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/forecasting/), improving the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and enabling more effective evacuation planning and disaster response efforts. Without the daring work of hurricane hunters, our ability to predict and prepare for these destructive storms would be significantly hindered.

## A legacy of bravery
The history of hurricane hunting [dates back](https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/severe/this-day-in-weather-history-july-27-1943-first-ever-flight-into-a-hurricane) to 1943, when a U.S. Army Air Forces pilot intentionally flew into a hurricane near Houston, Texas, on a bet. Since then, both military and civilian crews have continued this perilous tradition, advancing our understanding of tropical cyclones and saving countless lives.

As technology has evolved, so too have hurricane hunters’ capabilities. Modern aircraft are [equipped](https://vlab.noaa.gov/web/nws-heritage/-/then-and-now-noaa-hurricane-hunters) with cutting-edge instruments, such as Doppler radar and dropsonde systems, which provide detailed measurements of wind patterns and atmospheric conditions. Dropsondes, for instance, are small devices released from the aircraft that measure various atmospheric parameters as they fall, providing valuable data about the vertical profile of the atmosphere.

## The technology behind the missions
![​​Gulfstream IV-SP (front) and WP-3D Orion. Image by weather.gov](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/VAsIiNNpLCHtkLANwRGY/orig)  

The aircraft used by hurricane hunters are marvels of modern engineering. NOAA’s two WP-3D Orion aircraft, [affectionately known](https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2021/january/05/move-over-kermit-and-miss-piggy) as “Miss Piggy” and “Kermit,” are equipped with dual radar systems that scan the storm both vertically and horizontally, providing a real-time picture of the developing hurricane. Additionally, NOAA’s Gulfstream IV-SP jet flies at high altitudes around the storm, collecting data on the winds and weather systems in the upper atmosphere that steer hurricanes.

In recent years, advancements in drone technology have further enhanced the capabilities of hurricane hunters. Drones like the Altius 600 are [deployed](https://www.noaa.gov/stories/drones-hunt-hurricanes-noaa-puts-some-to-test) to explore the hurricane’s inner boundary, providing detailed data measurements that help researchers determine whether a storm is intensifying. Saildrones and underwater gliders are also [used](https://research.noaa.gov/2023/06/28/noaa-deploys-drones-in-the-ocean-and-atmosphere-to-advance-hurricane-forecasting/) to measure ocean temperature and salinity, factors that can affect a hurricane’s strength and track.

![Altius 600 mid-flight. Image by Amy Tolson](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/EzepqYgbDEXzrJGISCWO/orig)  

## Unsung heroes
While hurricane hunters may not receive the same recognition as other emergency responders, their contributions are no less vital. By braving the fury of nature's most powerful storms, they provide the critical data that enables communities to prepare and respond effectively.

As climate change continues to intensify hurricane activity, the role of hurricane hunters becomes even more crucial. Their bravery and dedication ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

## The impact of hurricane hunter data
The data collected by hurricane hunters has a profound impact on hurricane forecasting. According to a [study](https://phys.org/news/2016-05-early-hurricane-hunter-intensity.html#:~:text=Data%20collected%20via%20airplane%20when,the%20new%20technique%20into%20practice) by Penn State researchers, incorporating hurricane hunter data into prediction models can improve hurricane intensity predictions by up to 15 percent. This improvement translates to billions of dollars in savings and provides more notice to people in the path of a storm, potentially saving lives.

During the 2017 hurricane season, hurricane hunters flew [over 90 missions](https://en.aviation-report.com/usaf-hurricane-hunters-2017-season/) into Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria, and several others, providing crucial data that helped forecasters accurately predict the paths and intensities of these devastating storms. The information collected during these missions was instrumental in guiding evacuation efforts and disaster response, highlighting the critical role of hurricane hunters in protecting communities.

## A day in the life of a hurricane hunter
A [typical mission](https://www.livescience.com/60370-inside-irma-hurricane-hunters-photos.html) for a hurricane hunter crew can last up to 11 hours and cover nearly 3,500 miles (>5200 km), with some missions lasting a mind-bending 18 hours. The crew includes pilots, meteorologists, and technicians who work together to navigate the storm and collect data. The aircraft fly in and around the storm, deploying dropsondes and other instruments to gather atmospheric data.

The data collected during these missions is transmitted in real-time to meteorologists on the ground, who use sophisticated computer models to analyze and interpret the information. This real-time data is crucial for making timely and accurate forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare for the impact of the storm.

## The future of hurricane hunting
As technology continues to advance, the capabilities of hurricane hunters will only improve. NOAA is currently [upgrading](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) its fleet of hurricane hunter aircraft with state-of-the-art instruments, which are expected to further enhance the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and warnings. These advancements will help ensure that communities are better prepared for the increasing threat of hurricanes in the future.

In conclusion, hurricane hunters are an essential asset in unlocking the secrets of hurricanes. Their ability to fly directly into these massive storms and collect vital data has significantly improved the accuracy of hurricane forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare and respond to these devastating natural disasters. The bravery and dedication of hurricane hunters ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

So, the next time you hear a hurricane forecast, remember the unsung heroes who ventured into the eye of the storm, risking everything to keep us safe.


Who are the hurricane hunters? Into the eye of the storm: The daring work of hurricane hunters

What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.

Ball lightning is described as shining spherical objects floating around or hovering above the ground. Most of the eye-witness accounts describe this enigmatic phenomenon as balls of fire or electricity. Despite plenty of evidence that exists, scientists are not any closer to figuring it out, and we see more and more wild speculations about these mysterious spheres of light. The internet is full of ball lightning photos believed to be real. However, most of them are manipulated images.
What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.
 
<figure>

![Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/DYEqxHxNxcYUfxWQJKam/orig)

<figcaption>
Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org
</figcaption>

</figure>

## Amazing facts about ball lightning: 

- There is no accepted theory for what causes it or what it is made of (there are over 400 existing hypotheses that describe the nature of ball lightning). One of the theories suggests that these balls of fire consist of electrons and force-activated ions. Some scientists agree that the origin of this phenomenon is sustained by electromagnetic waves generated when the Earth's crust fractures. When the Earth's surface is shaking during an earthquake or minor shocks, these flows of electromagnetic waves soar into the air giving rise to luminescent spheres.
Due to the nature of this rare phenomenon having a lifetime of a few seconds, scientists have not succeeded in making extensive observations of these luminous spheres or in studying their properties.
- Ball lightning is common during thunderstorms. At other times, its causes have no relation to weather conditions.
- All attempts to produce ball lightning in the lab proved to be fruitless: though some motley crews of scientists could bring luminous objects to life, none of them could re-create the original nature of these objects.  The thing is ball lightning looks like plasma bubbles that can't last long in lab conditions.
- A "typical" ball lighting is the size of a cabbage head. There were rare eye-witnesses saying the hovering objects varied from several millimeters to few meters in diameter. Ball lightning can take different forms: it can be round, pear-shaped, circular, ellipsoid, to name just a few.
 
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![Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/pXAOICONtFFOoVGINHwb/orig)

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Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com
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- According to the research made by Alexander Grigoriev, a scientist from the city of Yaroslavl, Russia, ball lightning lasts for seconds to hours and vanishes following no particular pattern: either silently or with a blast, disappearing when striking the ground or hitting any type of conductor.

- Ball lightning emits light: sometimes dim, sometimes very intense. Ball lighting can travel at speed ranging from a few centimeters per minute to tens of meters per second.

- These floating spheres can range in color from white to yellow to green, or be even translucent.

- Information about the dangers caused by ball lightning varies enormously: while some witnesses struck by the sphere say they have not suffered any burns, others claim they saw ball lightning setting a haystack alight or even killed people.
 
- Most commonly, ball lightning zips around 1.5 meters above the ground. Still further, it can go several kilometers up from the ground.

- In 1963, ball lightning passed through a US passenger aircraft and vanished instantly not hurting anyone aboard or causing damage to the plane.

- Medveditsk ridge (Russia) located at the border of the Saratov and Volgograd regions is considered to be an anomaly site with the biggest number of ball lightning occurrences across the globe.




Ball lightning. What causes ball lightning? The most incredible facts about this phenomenon


Discover the mesmerizing spectacle of fire tornadoes, a natural phenomenon that showcases nature's fiery power

Nature is full of astonishing phenomena! There are the beautiful ones like rainbows, silvery clouds, and halos, and then there are the terrifying ones. We recently wrote about volcanic eruptions - it's horrifying to imagine cities being engulfed by molten lava. But there are other equally shocking spectacles - fire tornadoes.

Today, we discuss the reasons behind these phenomena and end by showcasing some of the most devastating examples.
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![Source: www.nationalgeographic.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/GoUgjdztbNiHYpUXplhR/orig)
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Source: www.nationalgeographic.com

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### How They Form
A fire tornado originates when several large fire sources combine. The heated air above them becomes less dense and rapidly rises. Cooler air currents from the surrounding area replace it at ground level, further fanning the flames. The more intense the fire and the rising air above it, the faster these currents become.

Due to the centripetal motion and high wind speeds, various objects can be drawn into the fire's epicenter – from dust to trees ripped out by the wind. Above this center, burning particles spiral upwards, dragging flames with them and forming fiery columns. Some can reach heights of over 1 km.

The temperature of these whirlwinds ranges around 1000-1500 °C. Another risk they pose is their ability to "shoot" burning debris, leading to new fires nearby.

Because of the rapid ascent of air, together with fire tornadoes, a unique type of cloud usually forms - the pyrocumulus or pyrocumulonimbus clouds. We will discuss these in one of our upcoming articles.

### Where They Occur
Tornadoes can emerge anywhere extensive fires take place; they have no specific geography. For instance, in recent years, they've been frequently spotted in areas affected by intense forest fires - in the USA, Australia, Russia, Japan, and European countries.
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![Source: belta.by/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5257675/ZEDLttSqVduRBLDQdJZM/orig)

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Source: belta.by
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</figure>
### Examples of Fire Tornadoes
— 1923, Japan: In just 15 minutes, a fire tornado resulting from an earthquake and the fires it caused throughout Tokyo took the lives of about 40,000 people.

— 1941-1945, World War II: Due to bombings during the war, heated tornadoes raged often. One of the largest was a tornado in Hamburg in 1943. Sparked by a massive citywide fire from bombings and reaching heights of nearly 500 meters, it led to the death of around 40,000 people. In 1945, in Dresden, a fire tornado claimed more than 20,000 lives. In that same year in Kobe, Japan, a fiery tornado took 7,000 lives. Later, a similar tornado occurred in Hiroshima after the nuclear strike.

— 2011, Hungary: A tornado emerged during a fire at a plastics manufacturing plant and completely destroyed the facility.

— 2012, Australia: Fire tornadoes in this hot country are almost an annual occurrence. In 2012, a tornado formed precisely where director Chris Tendji was filming. He managed to capture the terrifying phenomenon on film.

— 2023, Chile: This disaster led to the death of over 20 people and the destruction of 800 homes.

We wish you only wonderful natural phenomena! Remember, to choose the best day for stargazing or to plan an extended trip out of town to admire spring-summer clouds, our precipitation map can assist you.

Fire Tornadoes: Nature's Fiery Spectacle

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change

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Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change.

## The main greenhouse gases

Several types of greenhouse gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, each originating from different sources and possessing unique properties.

### Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

Carbon dioxide is the most prevalent greenhouse gas produced by human activities. It is primarily released through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas for energy and transportation. Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO₂ concentrations [have risen](https://www.carbonbrief.org/met-office-atmospheric-co2-now-hitting-50-higher-than-pre-industrial-levels/) by about 50%, increasing from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 419 ppm as of 2021. This unprecedented rise is a significant driver of current climate change.

### Methane (CH₄)

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a [global warming potential](https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/reducing-methane-emissions/faster-further-strategy.html) more than 25 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period. It is primarily produced through agricultural activities such as livestock farming and rice cultivation, as well as from the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and emissions from oil and gas extraction. Methane concentrations [have more than doubled](https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-atmospheric-concentrations-greenhouse-gases) since pre-industrial times, contributing significantly to climate warming.

### Nitrous oxide (N₂O)

Nitrous oxide is mainly emitted from agricultural practices, especially the use of synthetic and organic fertilizers that enhance nitrogen availability in soils. It is also released during industrial processes and combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. N₂O has a global warming potential [approximately](https://www.caro.ie/knowledge-hub/general-information/science-of-climate-change/greenhouse-gases) 298 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period, making it a significant contributor despite its lower concentration.

### Water vapor (H₂O)

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, though it is not directly emitted by human activities. Its concentration increases as the atmosphere warms because warmer air can hold more moisture. This creates a positive feedback loop: as temperatures rise due to other greenhouse gases, water vapor levels increase, which in turn amplifies the warming effect.

## How greenhouse gases work

The greenhouse effect involves the absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation by greenhouse gases, leading to the warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere.

### The basic mechanism

Solar radiation from the Sun, primarily in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation, passes through the Earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface. The Earth's surface absorbs this energy, warming up in the process, and then re-emits it as longwave infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including back toward the surface. This process traps heat in the lower atmosphere, raising the planet's average temperature. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth's average temperature [would be](https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming/page2.php) about –18°C (0°F) instead of the current average of approximately 15°C (59°F).

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### Specific mechanisms of different greenhouse gases

Each greenhouse gas absorbs infrared radiation at specific wavelengths, contributing differently to the greenhouse effect.

* **Carbon dioxide (CO₂)** [absorbs](https://michiganstopsmartmeters.com/how-does-co2-absorb-infrared/) infrared radiation at wavelengths around 15 micrometers and can remain in the atmosphere for centuries, making it a significant long-term driver of climate change.

* **Methane (CH₄)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths near 7.66 micrometers. Although methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime — about 12 years — it is [over 80 times](https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/methane/?intent=121) more effective than CO₂ at trapping heat over a 20-year period.

* **Nitrous oxide (N₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths around 7.8 micrometers. With an atmospheric lifetime of about 114 years, it has a [long-term impact](https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/mguidry/Unnamed_Site_2/Chapter%202/Chapter2C3.html#:~:text=Nitrous%20oxide%20enhances%20the%20greenhouse,to%20destruction%20of%20stratospheric%20ozone) on warming.

* **Water vapor (H₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation across a wide range of wavelengths. Its concentration is directly related to temperature, leading to a feedback loop that amplifies warming caused by other greenhouse gases.

### The enhanced greenhouse effect

Human activities have intensified the natural greenhouse effect by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

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**Increased concentrations:** Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide have risen sharply due to activities such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial processes. For instance, CO₂ levels [have increased](https://newatlas.com/environment/atmospheric-co2-50-percent-higher-pre-industrial-levels/) from about 280 ppm in the pre-industrial era to over 419 ppm in 2021.

**Positive feedback loops:** Warming temperatures can trigger processes that release additional greenhouse gases, creating positive feedback loops. For example, thawing permafrost in Arctic regions releases methane and CO₂ previously trapped in frozen soils, further enhancing warming.

**Climate sensitivity:** Climate sensitivity refers to the amount of global temperature increase expected from a doubling of CO₂ concentrations compared to pre-industrial levels. [Current estimates](https://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2021/08/notallmodels/) suggest a likely range of 2.5°C to 4°C, with a best estimate of around 3°C. Understanding climate sensitivity is crucial for predicting future climate impacts and informing policy decisions.

## Measuring and monitoring

Scientists use various methods to measure greenhouse gases and assess their impact on the climate. Understanding the mechanisms and impacts of greenhouse gases is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate climate change.

**Direct atmospheric measurements:** Monitoring stations worldwide, such as the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, continuously measure atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. These measurements provide critical data on how concentrations change over time.

**Satellite observations:** Satellites equipped with spectrometers measure the Earth's energy balance and the distribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They can detect changes in outgoing longwave radiation, offering insights into how the greenhouse effect is altering.

**Ice core analysis:** By examining air bubbles trapped in ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland, scientists reconstruct past atmospheric compositions, extending back hundreds of thousands of years. This information helps contextualize current greenhouse gas levels within historical variations.

**Spectroscopy:** Spectroscopic techniques identify specific greenhouse gases by their unique absorption spectra, enabling precise measurements of atmospheric composition and the study of gas interactions with radiation.

## Kazakhstan: a case study in greenhouse gas emissions

Kazakhstan offers a compelling example of the challenges and efforts associated with greenhouse gas emissions in a developing economy.

### Emissions profile

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[In 2021](https://icapcarbonaction.com/system/files/ets_pdfs/icap-etsmap-factsheet-46.pdf), Kazakhstan's total greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 338 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent, marking an increase from previous years. The energy sector is the largest contributor, [accounting](https://www.usaid.gov/energy/auctions-kazakhstan) for about 82% of the country's total emissions in 2015. This high percentage reflects Kazakhstan's heavy reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, for electricity generation and industrial processes.

Per capita, Kazakhstan's emissions are relatively high, [standing](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) at around 17.3 metric tons of CO₂ equivalent per person as of 2022. This ranks the country among the top emitters on a per capita basis, highlighting its energy-intensive economy.

Kazakhstan contributes [approximately](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) 0.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it one of the top 30 emitters worldwide. While this may seem small in global terms, it is significant for a nation with a population of about 19 million.

### Climate change impacts in Kazakhstan

The effects of increased greenhouse gas emissions are already apparent in Kazakhstan.

**Rising temperatures:** Between 1941 and 2020, the average annual temperature in Kazakhstan [increased](https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-023-01122-w) by about 2°C, exceeding the global average temperature rise. This warming trend affects agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems, potentially threatening food security and livelihoods.

**Extreme weather events:** Kazakhstan has experienced an increase in extreme weather events, including droughts, floods, and heatwaves. These events have substantial social and economic impacts, damaging infrastructure and affecting public health.

**Glacial retreat and water resources:** The country's glaciers are retreating, which threatens water supplies for agriculture and human consumption in downstream regions. Reduced glacial meltwater can lead to water shortages during dry seasons.

**Desertification:** Increasing temperatures and changing precipitation patterns contribute to desertification, impacting arable land and biodiversity.

### Mitigation efforts

Kazakhstan has implemented several strategies to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change.

**Emissions trading system:** In 2021, Kazakhstan [adopted](https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/ets/kazakhstan-emissions-trading-system) a new Environmental Code that includes an emissions trading system. This market-based approach aims to incentivize emission reductions in the industrial sector by setting caps and allowing trading of emission allowances.

**Renewable energy expansion:** The country is increasing its share of renewable energy sources. [By 2021](https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/reducing-temperatures-kazakhstan-takes-action-against-climate-change), Kazakhstan had over 115 renewable energy facilities in operation, including wind, solar, and hydropower plants. The government [aims](https://daryo.uz/en/2024/07/26/central-asia-advances-green-energy-with-initiatives-and-regional-cooperation) to produce 15% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2030 and 50% by 2050.

**Transition to natural gas:** Kazakhstan is transitioning from coal to natural gas for electricity generation and heating. Projects like the "[Saryarka](https://astanatimes.com/2020/01/kazakh-government-commissions-saryarka-gas-pipeline/)" gas pipeline are expanding access to natural gas, particularly in regions previously reliant on coal. This shift reduces carbon intensity and improves air quality.

**International commitments:** Kazakhstan [has pledged](https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/tokayev-announces-kazakhstans-pledge-to-reach-carbon-neutrality-by-2060/) to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 as part of its commitment to the Paris Agreement. The country submitted its updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.

**Energy efficiency initiatives:** Efforts are underway to improve energy efficiency across various sectors, including industry, transportation, and buildings. This includes adopting new technologies, enhancing regulations, and promoting public awareness to reduce energy consumption.

As global efforts to combat climate change intensify, countries like Kazakhstan will play a crucial role. Their ability to transition to cleaner energy sources and implement effective climate policies is vital in the global fight against climate change. Continued international cooperation, technological innovation, and investment in sustainable practices are essential to support these transitions.

Read more

Shaking things up: How to minimize earthquake damage

The incredible power of tsunamis: Nature’s most destructive force

Who are the hurricane hunters? Into the eye of the storm: The daring work of hurricane hunters

Ball lightning. What causes ball lightning? The most incredible facts about this phenomenon

Fire Tornadoes: Nature's Fiery Spectacle

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