Meteum meteorologists forecast spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm

According to the forecast provided by Meteum meteorologists, spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm

According to the forecast provided by Meteum meteorologists, spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm.

This spring, the country's weather will once again reflect the influence of global climate changes. In 9 megacities, the positive temperature anomaly will be significant: Brasília, Salvador, Fortaleza, Belo Horizonte, Manaus, Goiânia, Belém, São Luís, and Campo Grande. In all other cities, hotter weather compared to the long-term average is also expected, especially in October and November. However, fortunately, temperatures will be lower almost everywhere compared to the abnormal heat of 2023, with no new temperature records anticipated.

The situation with precipitation is more complex. On one hand, the rainfall pattern will return to the climatic norm across most states. The exceptions will be the state of Pará and the Northeastern region, including Recife, Salvador, São Luís, Belém, and Fortaleza. Droughts could be particularly severe in Fortaleza and Recife. In Recife, rainfall might reach record lows for the past 30 years, with only about 80 mm.

On the other hand, compared to the extremely dry 2023, this spring will be noticeably wetter across much of Brazil. Rainfall in Rio de Janeiro will increase by 1.5 times, in Manaus, Goiânia, and Belo Horizonte by 2 times, and in Campo Grande by almost 2.5 times. The next three months will also be wetter in São Paulo and Brasília. Overall, October to December will bring more rain than last year to the Northern, Central-West, and Southeastern regions, which is great news given the issue of widespread forest fires. Interestingly, the Southern region will also see rainfall return to the climatic norm across all states. However, compared to the abnormal spring of 2023, there will be significantly less rain in Curitiba (Paraná) and Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul), by 1.3 and 1.6 times, respectively.

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![Rainy day in Rio-de-Janeiro. Source: gringo-rio.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/YLOZtkVUqWDTQePYwJZM/orig)

<figcaption>
Rainy day in Rio-de-Janeiro. Source: gringo-rio.com

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</figure>


## Monthly weather forecast in Brazil

**At the end of September**, rain is likely in São Paulo, Recife, Salvador, Campo Grande, Curitiba, and Porto Alegre. In other cities, mostly clear weather is expected, as in Fortaleza and São Luís, or partly cloudy skies. The lowest daytime highs are forecasted for Porto Alegre (17-21°C), Curitiba (20-26°C), Salvador (24-28°C), Recife (26-29°C), and Rio de Janeiro (24-31°C). The highest temperatures are expected in Belém (33-38°C), Goiânia (36-39°C), Campo Grande (36-40°C), and Manaus (37-42°C).


<figure>

![São Paulo. Source: unsplash.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/iTfKrPyizhYPjenLTORx/orig)

<figcaption>
São Paulo. Source: unsplash.com

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</figure>


**In October**, hotter and drier weather is expected compared to the climatic norm. However, it will be cooler and rainier in many central and northern states compared to 2023. A significant drop in average monthly temperatures and an increase in rainfall is forecasted in the Amazon region, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Bahia. In Manaus, rainfall is expected to be 3.5 times higher than last year (150 mm), in Campo Grande 2 times higher (130 mm), in Goiânia, Belém, and Salvador 1.5 times higher (100 mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, respectively). Meanwhile, drier conditions are expected in Recife, Fortaleza, and the Southern and Southeastern regions. For example, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are expected to receive 1.5 times less rainfall—around 140 mm and 110 mm, respectively. Curitiba will receive 2 times less (around 170 mm).

**In November**, the situation will remain similar, but the noticeable drop in temperatures will affect not only the Amazon region, Goiás, Bahia, and Mato Grosso do Sul, but also Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. In Belo Horizonte, 3.5 times more rain is expected compared to last year (185 mm), in Goiânia and Campo Grande 3 times more (195 mm and 155 mm), and in São Luís 2 times more (30 mm). In Belém and Manaus, 1.5 times more rain is expected (45 mm and 195 mm). A significant reduction in rainfall is forecasted for the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Ceará: up to 120 mm in Porto Alegre (3 times less) and up to 10 mm in Fortaleza (2 times less).

**December** will be dry and hot in the Northeastern corner. In Fortaleza, Recife, and Salvador, rainfall is expected to be half of what it was last year (28 mm, 28 mm, and 33 mm, respectively). However, in several states in the Amazon, the Central-West region, and the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and eastern Paraná, the last month before Christmas will be cool and rainy. Rainfall in Curitiba and São Paulo is expected to be 2.5 times higher than in 2023 (165 mm and 195 mm), in Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, and Campo Grande 2 times higher (200 mm, 265 mm, and 205 mm), and in Manaus and Goiânia 1.5 times higher (310 mm and 225 mm).


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![New Year’s Eve in Brazil. Source: www.bookmundi.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/RachqoqkLMoMGyowjRMf/orig)

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New Year’s Eve in Brazil. Source: www.bookmundi.com

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</figure>

Spring in Brazil: cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching t

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme.

## Measuring extreme temperatures
Temperature is typically measured using thermometers placed in standardized shelters to protect them from direct sunlight, allowing for more accurate readings of air temperature. Surface temperatures, however, can be much higher and are often recorded via satellite or ground measurements. This makes comparing temperatures challenging, as older records may not be as reliable as modern data due to inconsistencies in measurement methods. Despite these challenges, certain locations have consistently recorded extreme temperatures that place them among the hottest on Earth.

## 6. Ahvaz, Iran
**Highest temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Ahvaz, a city in southwestern Iran, is known for its extreme temperatures. The city is also home to the stunning White Bridge (Pol-e Sefid), an iconic landmark that spans the Karun River and is illuminated beautifully at night.

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![The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/AFMmzAHXyvxXOjDhtQRQ/orig)

The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh
<figcaption>
</figcaption>
</figure>

### Factors contributing to Ahvaz’s heat
* Ahvaz is located near the Lut Desert, contributing to the high temperatures.
* Urban heat island effect: The urban environment of Ahvaz can further amplify temperatures due to the heat retention of buildings and pavement.

## 5. Mitribah, Kuwait
**Highest temperature:** 54°C (129.2°F) in 2016

Mitribah, a remote area in Kuwait, recorded one of the highest temperatures on Earth.

<figure>

![The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/mDxaIicSAoHZTThtrXqN/orig)

The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape
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</figcaption>
</figure>

### Factors contributing to Mitribah’s heat
* Desert environment: Mitribah is situated in a desert climate with extreme heat and minimal precipitation.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems in the region contribute to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.
## 4. Dallol, Ethiopia
**Average daily temperatures:** Exceed 40°C (104°F) with highs approaching 48.9°C (120°F)

Dallol, located in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia, is one of the hottest inhabited places on Earth. Dallol is known for its otherworldly landscape, including colorful hydrothermal deposits and acidic hot springs, making it a popular site for adventurous travelers.
<figure>

![The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/giievMrTStfzxidlAXfg/orig)

The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin
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</figcaption>
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### Factors contributing to Dallol’s heat
* Geothermal activity: The region’s geothermal activity contributes to the high temperatures.
* Desert climate: The arid climate exacerbates the heat.
## 3. Sahara Desert, North Africa
**Highest verified temperature:** 124.3°F (51.3°C) in 2018

The Sahara Desert, the world’s largest hot desert, spans several North African countries and experiences extreme heat, especially in the central regions. In El Azizia, Libya, a temperature of 57.8°C (136°F) was once recorded, though this measurement is disputed. Kebili, a desert town in Tunisia, is also known for recording one of the highest temperatures in Africa: in 1931, a temperature of 55°C (131°F) was reported, although this record is similarly considered less reliable than modern data. A much more verifiable record for the Sahara was set during the 2018 heat wave, measuring 51.3°C (124.3°F).

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![The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/LGXgLpjmFmmJTWAXucrA/orig)

The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik
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</figcaption>
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### Meteorological dynamics in the Sahara
* High insolation: The Sahara receives some of the highest amounts of solar radiation on Earth.
* Arid climate: The dry conditions mean there is very little evaporation to cool the air, leading to high temperatures.
* Sand and rock composition: The sandy and rocky terrain absorbs and radiates heat efficiently.
## 2. Lut Desert, Iran
**Highest ground temperature:** 70.7°C (159.3°F) in 2005

The Lut Desert, or Dasht-e Lut, in southeastern Iran, is one of the hottest places on Earth in terms of surface temperature. According to NASA’s satellite data, this desert holds the record for the highest ground temperature ever recorded: an astonishing 159.3°F (70.7°C) in 2005. The Lut Desert is a UNESCO World Heritage site, renowned for its stunning geological formations, including the massive Yardangs — wind-carved ridges and grooves that stretch for miles.

<figure>

![Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JFqEeBkqaUwOVKdGEMek/orig)

Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras
<figcaption>
</figcaption>
</figure>

### Meteorological factors in the Lut Desert
* Surface composition: The desert features dark lava surfaces, which absorb a significant amount of solar radiation, leading to extremely high surface temperatures.
* Dry air: The arid climate means there is very little moisture in the air to absorb heat, allowing surface temperatures to soar.
* Seasonal variations: During the summer months, the lack of vegetation and moisture leads to minimal cooling at night, keeping the temperatures high.

## 1. Death Valley, California, USA
**Highest air temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Located in the Mojave Desert in eastern California, Death Valley is a place synonymous with extreme heat. Furnace Creek in Death Valley recorded the highest air temperature ever observed on our planet. While many records are hard to verify, Death Valley remains the undisputed hottest place on Earth.

<figure>

![Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/JBEEdLYfEfFiwexPkAMi/orig)

Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano
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### Why is Death Valley so hot?
* Geography and topography: Death Valley is a below-sea-level basin surrounded by high, steep mountain ranges. This topography contributes to a phenomenon known as a “rain shadow,” where mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, leading to arid conditions.
* Albedo effect: The valley’s floor consists of light-colored salt flats, which reflect sunlight and intensify the heat.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems often dominate the region, leading to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.

The hottest places on Earth are fascinating examples of how geography, atmospheric conditions, and human factors interact to create extreme environments. Understanding these factors not only satisfies our curiosity but also highlights the challenges faced by people living in these regions. As climate change continues to impact global weather patterns, we could see even more record-setting temperatures in these places as well as other parts of the world. Studying these hotspots provides valuable, actionable insights into the future of our planet’s climate.


The hottest places on Earth: Where the sun’s fury is unleashed

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunte

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

Hurricane hunters are [members](https://hurricanescience.org/science/observation/aircraftrecon/hurricanehunters/) of the U.S. Air Force Reserve’s 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Hunters. Their mission is to penetrate tropical cyclones and [collect](https://journals.flvc.org/flgeog/article/view/84431/81541) real-time measurements of wind speed, air pressure, temperature, and humidity within the storm. The Air Force Reserve [has](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) 10 full-time crews and 10 part-time crews, supported by 278 maintenance personnel and 57 additional support staff.

## A perilous journey

![Hurricane hunters fly into the eye of Hurricane Ida. Image by the National Hurricane Center](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/CbeiwqvBFvkUmSBNbviH/orig)  

Flying into a hurricane is an incredibly dangerous endeavor. As the aircraft penetrates the eyewall — the ring of intense thunderstorms surrounding the eye — it encounters extreme turbulence, with wind speeds changing by over 100 mph in just a few seconds. Powerful updrafts and downdrafts can toss the plane violently, subjecting the crew to immense gravitational forces.

Despite these hazards, hurricane hunters press on, typically [flying](https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/weather/2023/08/22/meet-the-teams-that-fly-into-hurricanes-for-a-living) at altitudes between 500 and 10,000 feet (150–3000 m). Their specially equipped aircraft, such as the Lockheed WC-130J and the Lockheed WP-3D Orion, are designed to withstand the punishing conditions within a hurricane.

## Vital data for forecasting
The data collected by hurricane hunters is invaluable for meteorologists at the National Hurricane Center (NHC). By measuring the central pressure and wind speeds within the storm, forecasters can better predict a hurricane's intensity, track, and potential impacts.

This information is then fed into sophisticated [computer models](https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/forecasting/), improving the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and enabling more effective evacuation planning and disaster response efforts. Without the daring work of hurricane hunters, our ability to predict and prepare for these destructive storms would be significantly hindered.

## A legacy of bravery
The history of hurricane hunting [dates back](https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/severe/this-day-in-weather-history-july-27-1943-first-ever-flight-into-a-hurricane) to 1943, when a U.S. Army Air Forces pilot intentionally flew into a hurricane near Houston, Texas, on a bet. Since then, both military and civilian crews have continued this perilous tradition, advancing our understanding of tropical cyclones and saving countless lives.

As technology has evolved, so too have hurricane hunters’ capabilities. Modern aircraft are [equipped](https://vlab.noaa.gov/web/nws-heritage/-/then-and-now-noaa-hurricane-hunters) with cutting-edge instruments, such as Doppler radar and dropsonde systems, which provide detailed measurements of wind patterns and atmospheric conditions. Dropsondes, for instance, are small devices released from the aircraft that measure various atmospheric parameters as they fall, providing valuable data about the vertical profile of the atmosphere.

## The technology behind the missions
![​​Gulfstream IV-SP (front) and WP-3D Orion. Image by weather.gov](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/VAsIiNNpLCHtkLANwRGY/orig)  

The aircraft used by hurricane hunters are marvels of modern engineering. NOAA’s two WP-3D Orion aircraft, [affectionately known](https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2021/january/05/move-over-kermit-and-miss-piggy) as “Miss Piggy” and “Kermit,” are equipped with dual radar systems that scan the storm both vertically and horizontally, providing a real-time picture of the developing hurricane. Additionally, NOAA’s Gulfstream IV-SP jet flies at high altitudes around the storm, collecting data on the winds and weather systems in the upper atmosphere that steer hurricanes.

In recent years, advancements in drone technology have further enhanced the capabilities of hurricane hunters. Drones like the Altius 600 are [deployed](https://www.noaa.gov/stories/drones-hunt-hurricanes-noaa-puts-some-to-test) to explore the hurricane’s inner boundary, providing detailed data measurements that help researchers determine whether a storm is intensifying. Saildrones and underwater gliders are also [used](https://research.noaa.gov/2023/06/28/noaa-deploys-drones-in-the-ocean-and-atmosphere-to-advance-hurricane-forecasting/) to measure ocean temperature and salinity, factors that can affect a hurricane’s strength and track.

![Altius 600 mid-flight. Image by Amy Tolson](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/EzepqYgbDEXzrJGISCWO/orig)  

## Unsung heroes
While hurricane hunters may not receive the same recognition as other emergency responders, their contributions are no less vital. By braving the fury of nature's most powerful storms, they provide the critical data that enables communities to prepare and respond effectively.

As climate change continues to intensify hurricane activity, the role of hurricane hunters becomes even more crucial. Their bravery and dedication ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

## The impact of hurricane hunter data
The data collected by hurricane hunters has a profound impact on hurricane forecasting. According to a [study](https://phys.org/news/2016-05-early-hurricane-hunter-intensity.html#:~:text=Data%20collected%20via%20airplane%20when,the%20new%20technique%20into%20practice) by Penn State researchers, incorporating hurricane hunter data into prediction models can improve hurricane intensity predictions by up to 15 percent. This improvement translates to billions of dollars in savings and provides more notice to people in the path of a storm, potentially saving lives.

During the 2017 hurricane season, hurricane hunters flew [over 90 missions](https://en.aviation-report.com/usaf-hurricane-hunters-2017-season/) into Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria, and several others, providing crucial data that helped forecasters accurately predict the paths and intensities of these devastating storms. The information collected during these missions was instrumental in guiding evacuation efforts and disaster response, highlighting the critical role of hurricane hunters in protecting communities.

## A day in the life of a hurricane hunter
A [typical mission](https://www.livescience.com/60370-inside-irma-hurricane-hunters-photos.html) for a hurricane hunter crew can last up to 11 hours and cover nearly 3,500 miles (>5200 km), with some missions lasting a mind-bending 18 hours. The crew includes pilots, meteorologists, and technicians who work together to navigate the storm and collect data. The aircraft fly in and around the storm, deploying dropsondes and other instruments to gather atmospheric data.

The data collected during these missions is transmitted in real-time to meteorologists on the ground, who use sophisticated computer models to analyze and interpret the information. This real-time data is crucial for making timely and accurate forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare for the impact of the storm.

## The future of hurricane hunting
As technology continues to advance, the capabilities of hurricane hunters will only improve. NOAA is currently [upgrading](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) its fleet of hurricane hunter aircraft with state-of-the-art instruments, which are expected to further enhance the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and warnings. These advancements will help ensure that communities are better prepared for the increasing threat of hurricanes in the future.

In conclusion, hurricane hunters are an essential asset in unlocking the secrets of hurricanes. Their ability to fly directly into these massive storms and collect vital data has significantly improved the accuracy of hurricane forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare and respond to these devastating natural disasters. The bravery and dedication of hurricane hunters ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

So, the next time you hear a hurricane forecast, remember the unsung heroes who ventured into the eye of the storm, risking everything to keep us safe.


Who are the hurricane hunters? Into the eye of the storm: The daring work of hurricane hunters

What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.

Ball lightning is described as shining spherical objects floating around or hovering above the ground. Most of the eye-witness accounts describe this enigmatic phenomenon as balls of fire or electricity. Despite plenty of evidence that exists, scientists are not any closer to figuring it out, and we see more and more wild speculations about these mysterious spheres of light. The internet is full of ball lightning photos believed to be real. However, most of them are manipulated images.
What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.
 
<figure>

![Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/DYEqxHxNxcYUfxWQJKam/orig)

<figcaption>
Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org
</figcaption>

</figure>

## Amazing facts about ball lightning: 

- There is no accepted theory for what causes it or what it is made of (there are over 400 existing hypotheses that describe the nature of ball lightning). One of the theories suggests that these balls of fire consist of electrons and force-activated ions. Some scientists agree that the origin of this phenomenon is sustained by electromagnetic waves generated when the Earth's crust fractures. When the Earth's surface is shaking during an earthquake or minor shocks, these flows of electromagnetic waves soar into the air giving rise to luminescent spheres.
Due to the nature of this rare phenomenon having a lifetime of a few seconds, scientists have not succeeded in making extensive observations of these luminous spheres or in studying their properties.
- Ball lightning is common during thunderstorms. At other times, its causes have no relation to weather conditions.
- All attempts to produce ball lightning in the lab proved to be fruitless: though some motley crews of scientists could bring luminous objects to life, none of them could re-create the original nature of these objects.  The thing is ball lightning looks like plasma bubbles that can't last long in lab conditions.
- A "typical" ball lighting is the size of a cabbage head. There were rare eye-witnesses saying the hovering objects varied from several millimeters to few meters in diameter. Ball lightning can take different forms: it can be round, pear-shaped, circular, ellipsoid, to name just a few.
 
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![Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/pXAOICONtFFOoVGINHwb/orig)

<figcaption>
Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com
</figcaption>

</figure>

- According to the research made by Alexander Grigoriev, a scientist from the city of Yaroslavl, Russia, ball lightning lasts for seconds to hours and vanishes following no particular pattern: either silently or with a blast, disappearing when striking the ground or hitting any type of conductor.

- Ball lightning emits light: sometimes dim, sometimes very intense. Ball lighting can travel at speed ranging from a few centimeters per minute to tens of meters per second.

- These floating spheres can range in color from white to yellow to green, or be even translucent.

- Information about the dangers caused by ball lightning varies enormously: while some witnesses struck by the sphere say they have not suffered any burns, others claim they saw ball lightning setting a haystack alight or even killed people.
 
- Most commonly, ball lightning zips around 1.5 meters above the ground. Still further, it can go several kilometers up from the ground.

- In 1963, ball lightning passed through a US passenger aircraft and vanished instantly not hurting anyone aboard or causing damage to the plane.

- Medveditsk ridge (Russia) located at the border of the Saratov and Volgograd regions is considered to be an anomaly site with the biggest number of ball lightning occurrences across the globe.




Ball lightning. What causes ball lightning? The most incredible facts about this phenomenon


Hurricanes have long captivated and terrified coastal communities, but recent research suggests these massive storms are becoming even more formidable

Hurricanes have long captivated and terrified coastal communities, but recent research suggests these massive storms are becoming even more formidable in the face of climate change. Understanding and predicting hurricanes is more crucial than ever, as these natural phenomena pose increasing risks to life, property, and economies globally

Hurricanes have long captivated and terrified coastal communities, but recent research suggests these massive storms are becoming even more formidable in the face of climate change. Understanding and predicting hurricanes is more crucial than ever, as these natural phenomena pose increasing risks to life, property, and economies globally.

## The anatomy of a hurricane

Hurricanes, also known as tropical cyclones in other parts of the world, are complex atmospheric phenomena that develop over warm tropical oceans. These massive storm systems are characterized by their rotating structure, intense winds, and heavy rainfall.

<figure>

![/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/kOAAMBmQFiYQDffdqxho/orig)

<figcaption>
</figcaption>
</figure>


### Formation process

1. **Tropical disturbance**: The genesis of a hurricane [begins](https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/how-hurricanes-form.html) with a tropical disturbance — a cluster of thunderstorms over warm ocean waters. These disturbances often originate from easterly waves, which are elongated areas of low air pressure moving westward across the tropics.

2. **Tropical depression**: As the system organizes and the pressure drops, it [becomes](https://scijinks.gov/hurricane/) a tropical depression with sustained winds up to 38 mph (61 km/h). A closed circulation begins to form, indicating the system is gaining strength.

3. **Tropical storm**: When sustained winds [reach](https://scijinks.gov/hurricane/) 39–73 mph (63–118 km/h), it’s classified as a tropical storm and is given a name. The storm becomes more organized, and spiral rainbands develop around a more defined center.

4. **Hurricane**: At [wind speeds](https://scijinks.gov/hurricane/) of 74 mph (119 km/h) or higher, the system becomes a full-fledged hurricane. A distinct eye forms at the center, surrounded by a violent eyewall where the most severe weather occurs.

## The science behind hurricane intensity

Hurricanes derive their energy from warm ocean waters and moist air. The process [involves](https://nhmu.utah.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/All%20About%20Hurricanes.pdf) a heat engine mechanism where warm, moist air rises from the ocean surface, leading to condensation as it cools at higher altitudes. This condensation releases latent heat, which fuels the storm's updrafts and strengthens the hurricane.

The Earth's rotation causes the [Coriolis effect](https://archive.org/details/NasaSciFiles-HurricaneEnergyAndCoriolisEffect), which imparts a spin to the storm system. This effect is responsible for the counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Additionally, the low atmospheric pressure at the hurricane's center draws in surrounding air. The pressure difference between the center and the periphery generates strong winds as air moves toward the center and rises.

## Climate change and hurricane intensity

Recent studies have shown a concerning trend in hurricane behavior linked to climate change. Hurricanes are now more likely to undergo rapid intensification — a significant increase in wind speed within a short period, typically 24 hours. For example, Hurricane Michael in 2018 [intensified](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Michael) from a Category 2 to a Category 5 storm in less than 36 hours before making landfall in Florida.

While the total number of hurricanes may not have increased significantly, there is [evidence](https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-predicts-above-normal-2024-atlantic-hurricane-season) suggesting an uptick in the frequency of major hurricanes (Category 3 and above). A study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2020 found that the proportion of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes has increased over the past four decades.

<figure>

![/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/13534427/SKQavxrxiudgHAuNihyq/orig)

<figcaption>
</figcaption>
</figure>


Warmer sea surface temperatures provide more energy for hurricanes, leading to higher maximum sustained wind speeds. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), for every 1°C increase in sea surface temperature, the potential wind speed of hurricanes [can increase](https://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/58330/20230909/global-impact-extreme-weather-events-climate-change-intensify-frequent-hurricanes.htm) by up to 5%.

Moreover, warmer air can hold more moisture, leading to higher precipitation levels during hurricanes. Studies have shown that hurricane-associated rainfall rates [are expected](https://www.cbsnews.com/news/climate-change-may-make-extreme-hurricane-rainfall-five-times-more-likely-study-says/) to increase by about 7% per degree Celsius of global warming, as per the Clausius-Clapeyron relation.

Some research [suggests](https://www.npr.org/2018/06/06/616814022/hurricanes-are-moving-more-slowly-which-means-more-damage) that hurricanes are moving more slowly, which can exacerbate flooding by allowing storms to dump more rain over a single area. Hurricane Harvey in 2017 is a notable example, stalling over Texas and causing catastrophic flooding.

## Fascinating hurricane facts

Hurricanes are truly remarkable phenomena. The largest tropical cyclone on record was Typhoon Tip in 1979, which had a [diameter](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earths-strongest-most-massive-storm-ever/#:~:text=Besides%20having%20unsurpassed%20intensity%2C%20Super,New%20York%20City%20to%20Dallas.) of approximately 1,380 miles (2,220 kilometers) — nearly half the size of the continental United States. These storms are also energy powerhouses; a mature hurricane [can release](https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-hurricanes) heat energy at a rate equivalent to exploding a 10-megaton nuclear bomb every 20 minutes.

The eye of a hurricane, ranging from 5 to 40 miles (8 to 65 kilometers) in diameter, presents a stark contrast to the surrounding chaos. Despite the calm conditions within the eye, it is surrounded by the eyewall, where the most violent winds and intense rainfall occur.

Tropical storms and hurricanes are named according to a predetermined list maintained by the World Meteorological Organization. If a season exhausts the list of 21 names, additional storms are named using a supplemental list — a practice [updated](https://www.foxweather.com/weather-news/no-more-greek-alphabet-heres-what-happens-if-we-run-out-of-hurricane-names-this-year) in 2021 to replace the previous use of the Greek alphabet.

The economic impact of these storms can be staggering. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 [remains](https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-hurricanes) one of the costliest hurricanes in U.S. history, causing an estimated $125 billion in damage (adjusted to 2021 dollars). It also resulted in over 1,800 fatalities, highlighting the severe human cost of such disasters.

## Predicting and monitoring hurricanes

Advancements in technology have significantly improved hurricane forecasting. Geostationary satellites like GOES-16 provide continuous monitoring of tropical cyclones, offering high-resolution images that help meteorologists track storm development and movement. Specialized aircraft, known as hurricane hunters, fly directly into hurricanes to collect critical real-time data on wind speeds, pressure, temperature, and humidity.

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![/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/13534427/WNYxIvaNgyoGUrsPjfLH/orig)

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Sophisticated numerical weather prediction models, such as the Global Forecast System (GFS) and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), use vast amounts of data to predict hurricane paths and intensities. Ensemble forecasting — running multiple simulations with slightly varying initial conditions — helps estimate the range of possible outcomes.

A network of ocean buoys and Argo floats collects data on sea surface temperatures, salinity, and currents, which are essential inputs for forecasting models. Recent research has also identified a connection between atmospheric Kelvin waves — large-scale waves in the tropical atmosphere — and hurricane formation. Understanding this relationship could improve long-range forecasting of hurricane activity.

## The impact of hurricanes

Beyond the meteorological fascination, it's crucial to recognize the profound human toll of these storms. Studies published in the American Journal of Epidemiology [have shown](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9710380/) an increased incidence of cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks and strokes, among populations affected by hurricanes. The stress and physical exertion associated with evacuation and disaster response contribute to these health risks.

The psychological impact of hurricanes can be long-lasting. Survivors [may experience](https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/hurricanes-take-heavy-toll-mental-health-survivors) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues. Access to mental health services is a critical component of disaster recovery efforts.

Hurricanes can cause significant economic disruption, affecting local businesses, agriculture, infrastructure, and even global supply chains. For instance, Hurricane Harvey [disrupted](https://www.forbes.com/sites/ellenrwald/2017/08/28/hurricane-harvey-impacts-crude-oil-and-gasoline-what-you-need-to-know/) oil and gas production in the Gulf of Mexico, leading to fluctuations in global energy markets.

Severe hurricanes can lead to long-term displacement of populations. Following Hurricane Maria in 2017, an [estimated](https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/19/health/sutter-puerto-rico-census-update/index.html) 130,000 people left Puerto Rico for the mainland United States, impacting demographics and economies in both regions. Vulnerable communities, including low-income populations and marginalized groups, often suffer disproportionately from hurricane impacts due to factors like inadequate housing, limited access to resources, and pre-existing social inequalities.

## Looking to the future

As our climate continues to change, understanding and predicting hurricanes becomes increasingly critical. Efforts to improve resilience against these powerful storms involve multiple strategies. Ongoing research into the links between climate change and hurricane behavior is essential, as enhanced understanding can inform policy decisions and adaptation strategies.

Investing in resilient infrastructure — such as elevated buildings, storm surge barriers, and improved drainage systems — can mitigate the physical damage caused by hurricanes. Strengthening early warning systems ensures that populations receive timely and accurate information, enabling effective evacuation and preparation.

Public education campaigns and community engagement are vital for fostering preparedness. This includes disaster drills, emergency kits, and evacuation plans. Governments and organizations must integrate climate projections into urban planning, building codes, and resource allocation to reduce vulnerability to hurricanes.

The key takeaway is that while hurricanes are natural phenomena, human activities are altering their characteristics in ways that pose new challenges for coastal communities and beyond. As we face this evolving threat, continued investment in climate science, improved infrastructure, and community preparedness will be crucial in mitigating the impacts of these colossal storms.

Hurricanes: Nature’s colossal storms intensifying in a warming world

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planni

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

## Building a strong foundation
The old adage “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” couldn’t be more apt when it comes to earthquake preparedness. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [emphasizes](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/seismic-building-codes) the importance of structural integrity in minimizing earthquake damage. For homeowners and businesses, this means:
1. Evaluating your building’s structure, especially if it’s older than current seismic design provisions in local building codes.
2. Considering retrofits to meet or exceed current building codes.
3. Paying special attention to unreinforced masonry, which is particularly vulnerable during earthquakes.

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![An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/UFmnZWLizSbuaiEcORnB/orig) 

<figcaption>
An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead

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## Securing the inside
While a strong building is crucial, what’s inside matters too. Non-structural elements can pose significant risks during an earthquake. Earthquake experts [recommend](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/how-to-protect-your-home-before-an-earthquake) several steps to secure your interior spaces:
* Anchor heavy furniture, appliances, and shelving to wall studs.
* Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
* Install flexible gas and water connections on appliances.
* Apply safety film to windows and glass doors to prevent shattering.
* Brace heavy machinery, containers, and tanks that could shift or rupture.
These measures not only protect your belongings but also reduce the risk of injury from falling objects.
## Preparing for the aftermath
Earthquake damage isn’t limited to the shaking itself. Secondary effects, like fires, can be just as devastating. The California Earthquake Authority [emphasizes](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/what-should-you-do-after-an-earthquake) the importance of post-earthquake preparedness:
* Regularly check fire safety equipment, including extinguishers and water tanks.
* Assemble disaster preparedness kits with essentials like dust masks, portable chargers, and battery-powered radios.
* Train staff or family members on emergency procedures, including how to shut off gas, electricity, and water.
Did you know that after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, it was the subsequent fires that [caused](https://www.1906eqconf.org/plenarySessions.htm) about 90% of the total damage? This underscores the critical importance of fire prevention and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/OlsPCfKyRotKQppzPQnu/orig)

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration

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</figure>

## Community-wide efforts
Individual preparedness is crucial, but community-wide efforts can have an even broader impact. The Seismological Society of America [recommends](https://www.seismosoc.org/us-government-relations/actions-managing-earthquake-risk/) several actions for managing earthquake risk on a larger scale:
1. Developing a culture of preparedness through education and awareness programs.
2. Investing in retrofitting or replacing essential facilities like hospitals, schools, and emergency response centers.
3. Collaborating on region-wide, multi-organizational plans for earthquake response and recovery.
Japan’s nationwide earthquake early warning system, [implemented](https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/eew.html#:~:text=The%20Japan%20Meteorological%20Agency%20(JMA),such%20as%20TV%20and%20radio) in 2007, provides a few seconds to a minute of warning before strong shaking begins, allowing people to take immediate protective actions.
## The role of technology
Advancements in technology play an increasingly important role in earthquake preparedness. While we can’t predict earthquakes with precision, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds of advance notice. Many cities and states now offer free earthquake alert apps that can give residents a brief heads-up before the shaking starts.

For instance, the [ShakeAlert system](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-early-warning-overview) on the U.S. West Coast can [detect](https://www.usgs.gov/news/entire-us-west-coast-now-has-access-shakealert-earthquake-early-warning) earthquakes as they begin, potentially providing valuable seconds of warning to areas farther from the epicenter. This time can be crucial for automated systems to slow trains, open firehouse doors, or initiate other protective measures.
## Innovative building technologies
Engineers and architects are continually developing new technologies to make buildings more earthquake-resistant. Some fascinating innovations include:
1. [Base isolation](https://www.taylordevices.com/base-isolation/#:~:text=A%20base%20isolation%20system%20is,an%20earthquake%20is%20reduced%20significantly.): This technique involves placing flexible pads between a building and its foundation, allowing the structure to move somewhat independently of the ground during an earthquake.
2. [Tuned mass dampers](https://engineering.purdue.edu/~ce573/Documents/Intro%20to%20Structural%20Motion%20Control_Chapter4.pdf#:~:text=A%20tuned%20mass%20damper%20(TMD),phase%20with%20the%20structural%20motion): Large weights placed at the top of tall buildings that move in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, helping to counteract the earthquake’s motion.
3. [Shape memory alloys](https://phys.org/news/2012-02-shape-memory-alloys-earthquake-resistant.html): These materials can “remember” their original shape after being deformed, potentially allowing buildings to return to their original position after an earthquake.
4. [Self-centering systems](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2020/8859881): These designs allow buildings to rock during an earthquake and then return to their original position, minimizing structural damage.

<figure>

![Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/CqofyeijfVJrZUTDdmnJ/orig)  

<figcaption>
Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Seismic deconvolution and masking
[Seismic deconvolution](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8105-8_4#:~:text=Deconvolution%20is%20a%20general%20term,the%20seismic%20sources%20and%20receivers) removes effects that mask primary reflected events on a seismogram, such as absorption, reverberation, and ghosting. This technique helps obtain clearer seismic data, crucial for understanding geological structures and making informed decisions about building designs and retrofits.

Additionally, explainable artificial intelligence (AI) is also [being used](https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06682) to design masks for self-supervised seismic denoising. This approach helps suppress noise in seismic data without requiring prior knowledge of the noise itself, making it a fully automated denoising procedure. This technology can significantly improve the accuracy of seismic data interpretation, leading to better earthquake preparedness and response strategies.
## “Floating house”
One of the most intriguing innovations in earthquake-resistant housing comes from Japan. Air Danshin Systems Inc., a Japanese company, has developed a groundbreaking technology that allows houses to temporarily “float” above the ground during earthquakes. Here’s how Air Danshin’s [system](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) works:
* The house is built with an additional foundation, a sensor, and an air compressor.
* When the sensor detects the initial tremors of an earthquake, it sends a signal to the external air compressor.
* Within 0.5 to 1 second, the compressor activates and pumps compressed air between the earthquake-proof foundation and the base of the house.
* This action lifts the entire structure approximately 3 cm (about 1.2 inches) off the ground.
* The house remains elevated during the earthquake, effectively isolating it from ground movements.
* Once the tremors subside, the air is gradually released, and the house settles back onto its foundation.
Air Danshin [claims](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) that a house not in contact with the ground during an earthquake will not shake, thus preventing damage. However, this technology has limitations. The 3 cm lift height may not be sufficient for earthquakes with significant vertical movement. Additionally, the system comes with a substantial cost.

Despite these limitations, Air Danshin’s floating house technology represents an innovative approach to earthquake-resistant housing. While it may not be a complete solution to earthquake damage, it could be a valuable piece of a larger strategy for improving seismic safety.
## Economic impact and insurance
The economic toll of earthquakes can be staggering. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, the [second-most](https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/which-state-has-the-most-earthquakes-in-the-us#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20Alaska%20the,fact%20of%20life%20in%20Alaska) seismically-active U.S. states, [caused](https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/earthquakes/northridge) an estimated $20 billion in damage. Earthquake insurance can play a crucial role in recovery, but standard homeowner’s insurance policies typically don’t cover earthquake damage.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/wXmpugRBGGinFKpBiBVm/orig)   

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom

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</figure>

In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) provides most residential earthquake insurance policies. [As of 2022](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/insurance#:~:text=Despite%20experiencing%2090%25%20of%20the,California's%20residents%20have%20earthquake%20insurance.), only about 10% of California homeowners had earthquake insurance, highlighting a significant gap in financial preparedness.

While we can’t prevent earthquakes, we can certainly mitigate their impact. By focusing on structural integrity, securing non-structural elements, preparing for aftermath scenarios, fostering community preparedness, and leveraging technology, we can significantly reduce the damage and disruption caused by seismic events.

Remember, earthquake preparedness is an ongoing process, not a one-time effort. Regular assessments, updates to your preparedness plans, and staying informed about the latest safety recommendations are all part of a comprehensive approach to minimizing earthquake damage.

As we continue to improve our understanding of seismic risks and develop new mitigation techniques, we move closer to a future where earthquakes, while still formidable natural events, no longer pose the catastrophic threat they once did.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android. 

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