When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching t

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme.

## Measuring extreme temperatures
Temperature is typically measured using thermometers placed in standardized shelters to protect them from direct sunlight, allowing for more accurate readings of air temperature. Surface temperatures, however, can be much higher and are often recorded via satellite or ground measurements. This makes comparing temperatures challenging, as older records may not be as reliable as modern data due to inconsistencies in measurement methods. Despite these challenges, certain locations have consistently recorded extreme temperatures that place them among the hottest on Earth.

## 6. Ahvaz, Iran
**Highest temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Ahvaz, a city in southwestern Iran, is known for its extreme temperatures. The city is also home to the stunning White Bridge (Pol-e Sefid), an iconic landmark that spans the Karun River and is illuminated beautifully at night.

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![The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/AFMmzAHXyvxXOjDhtQRQ/orig)

The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh
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</figure>

### Factors contributing to Ahvaz’s heat
* Ahvaz is located near the Lut Desert, contributing to the high temperatures.
* Urban heat island effect: The urban environment of Ahvaz can further amplify temperatures due to the heat retention of buildings and pavement.

## 5. Mitribah, Kuwait
**Highest temperature:** 54°C (129.2°F) in 2016

Mitribah, a remote area in Kuwait, recorded one of the highest temperatures on Earth.

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![The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/mDxaIicSAoHZTThtrXqN/orig)

The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape
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</figure>

### Factors contributing to Mitribah’s heat
* Desert environment: Mitribah is situated in a desert climate with extreme heat and minimal precipitation.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems in the region contribute to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.
## 4. Dallol, Ethiopia
**Average daily temperatures:** Exceed 40°C (104°F) with highs approaching 48.9°C (120°F)

Dallol, located in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia, is one of the hottest inhabited places on Earth. Dallol is known for its otherworldly landscape, including colorful hydrothermal deposits and acidic hot springs, making it a popular site for adventurous travelers.
<figure>

![The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/giievMrTStfzxidlAXfg/orig)

The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin
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### Factors contributing to Dallol’s heat
* Geothermal activity: The region’s geothermal activity contributes to the high temperatures.
* Desert climate: The arid climate exacerbates the heat.
## 3. Sahara Desert, North Africa
**Highest verified temperature:** 124.3°F (51.3°C) in 2018

The Sahara Desert, the world’s largest hot desert, spans several North African countries and experiences extreme heat, especially in the central regions. In El Azizia, Libya, a temperature of 57.8°C (136°F) was once recorded, though this measurement is disputed. Kebili, a desert town in Tunisia, is also known for recording one of the highest temperatures in Africa: in 1931, a temperature of 55°C (131°F) was reported, although this record is similarly considered less reliable than modern data. A much more verifiable record for the Sahara was set during the 2018 heat wave, measuring 51.3°C (124.3°F).

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![The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/LGXgLpjmFmmJTWAXucrA/orig)

The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik
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### Meteorological dynamics in the Sahara
* High insolation: The Sahara receives some of the highest amounts of solar radiation on Earth.
* Arid climate: The dry conditions mean there is very little evaporation to cool the air, leading to high temperatures.
* Sand and rock composition: The sandy and rocky terrain absorbs and radiates heat efficiently.
## 2. Lut Desert, Iran
**Highest ground temperature:** 70.7°C (159.3°F) in 2005

The Lut Desert, or Dasht-e Lut, in southeastern Iran, is one of the hottest places on Earth in terms of surface temperature. According to NASA’s satellite data, this desert holds the record for the highest ground temperature ever recorded: an astonishing 159.3°F (70.7°C) in 2005. The Lut Desert is a UNESCO World Heritage site, renowned for its stunning geological formations, including the massive Yardangs — wind-carved ridges and grooves that stretch for miles.

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![Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JFqEeBkqaUwOVKdGEMek/orig)

Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras
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</figcaption>
</figure>

### Meteorological factors in the Lut Desert
* Surface composition: The desert features dark lava surfaces, which absorb a significant amount of solar radiation, leading to extremely high surface temperatures.
* Dry air: The arid climate means there is very little moisture in the air to absorb heat, allowing surface temperatures to soar.
* Seasonal variations: During the summer months, the lack of vegetation and moisture leads to minimal cooling at night, keeping the temperatures high.

## 1. Death Valley, California, USA
**Highest air temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Located in the Mojave Desert in eastern California, Death Valley is a place synonymous with extreme heat. Furnace Creek in Death Valley recorded the highest air temperature ever observed on our planet. While many records are hard to verify, Death Valley remains the undisputed hottest place on Earth.

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![Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/JBEEdLYfEfFiwexPkAMi/orig)

Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano
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### Why is Death Valley so hot?
* Geography and topography: Death Valley is a below-sea-level basin surrounded by high, steep mountain ranges. This topography contributes to a phenomenon known as a “rain shadow,” where mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, leading to arid conditions.
* Albedo effect: The valley’s floor consists of light-colored salt flats, which reflect sunlight and intensify the heat.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems often dominate the region, leading to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.

The hottest places on Earth are fascinating examples of how geography, atmospheric conditions, and human factors interact to create extreme environments. Understanding these factors not only satisfies our curiosity but also highlights the challenges faced by people living in these regions. As climate change continues to impact global weather patterns, we could see even more record-setting temperatures in these places as well as other parts of the world. Studying these hotspots provides valuable, actionable insights into the future of our planet’s climate.


The hottest places on Earth: Where the sun’s fury is unleashed

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planni

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

## Building a strong foundation
The old adage “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” couldn’t be more apt when it comes to earthquake preparedness. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [emphasizes](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/seismic-building-codes) the importance of structural integrity in minimizing earthquake damage. For homeowners and businesses, this means:
1. Evaluating your building’s structure, especially if it’s older than current seismic design provisions in local building codes.
2. Considering retrofits to meet or exceed current building codes.
3. Paying special attention to unreinforced masonry, which is particularly vulnerable during earthquakes.

<figure>

![An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/UFmnZWLizSbuaiEcORnB/orig) 

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An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead

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</figure>



## Securing the inside
While a strong building is crucial, what’s inside matters too. Non-structural elements can pose significant risks during an earthquake. Earthquake experts [recommend](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/how-to-protect-your-home-before-an-earthquake) several steps to secure your interior spaces:
* Anchor heavy furniture, appliances, and shelving to wall studs.
* Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
* Install flexible gas and water connections on appliances.
* Apply safety film to windows and glass doors to prevent shattering.
* Brace heavy machinery, containers, and tanks that could shift or rupture.
These measures not only protect your belongings but also reduce the risk of injury from falling objects.
## Preparing for the aftermath
Earthquake damage isn’t limited to the shaking itself. Secondary effects, like fires, can be just as devastating. The California Earthquake Authority [emphasizes](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/what-should-you-do-after-an-earthquake) the importance of post-earthquake preparedness:
* Regularly check fire safety equipment, including extinguishers and water tanks.
* Assemble disaster preparedness kits with essentials like dust masks, portable chargers, and battery-powered radios.
* Train staff or family members on emergency procedures, including how to shut off gas, electricity, and water.
Did you know that after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, it was the subsequent fires that [caused](https://www.1906eqconf.org/plenarySessions.htm) about 90% of the total damage? This underscores the critical importance of fire prevention and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

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![The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/OlsPCfKyRotKQppzPQnu/orig)

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The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration

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## Community-wide efforts
Individual preparedness is crucial, but community-wide efforts can have an even broader impact. The Seismological Society of America [recommends](https://www.seismosoc.org/us-government-relations/actions-managing-earthquake-risk/) several actions for managing earthquake risk on a larger scale:
1. Developing a culture of preparedness through education and awareness programs.
2. Investing in retrofitting or replacing essential facilities like hospitals, schools, and emergency response centers.
3. Collaborating on region-wide, multi-organizational plans for earthquake response and recovery.
Japan’s nationwide earthquake early warning system, [implemented](https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/eew.html#:~:text=The%20Japan%20Meteorological%20Agency%20(JMA),such%20as%20TV%20and%20radio) in 2007, provides a few seconds to a minute of warning before strong shaking begins, allowing people to take immediate protective actions.
## The role of technology
Advancements in technology play an increasingly important role in earthquake preparedness. While we can’t predict earthquakes with precision, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds of advance notice. Many cities and states now offer free earthquake alert apps that can give residents a brief heads-up before the shaking starts.

For instance, the [ShakeAlert system](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-early-warning-overview) on the U.S. West Coast can [detect](https://www.usgs.gov/news/entire-us-west-coast-now-has-access-shakealert-earthquake-early-warning) earthquakes as they begin, potentially providing valuable seconds of warning to areas farther from the epicenter. This time can be crucial for automated systems to slow trains, open firehouse doors, or initiate other protective measures.
## Innovative building technologies
Engineers and architects are continually developing new technologies to make buildings more earthquake-resistant. Some fascinating innovations include:
1. [Base isolation](https://www.taylordevices.com/base-isolation/#:~:text=A%20base%20isolation%20system%20is,an%20earthquake%20is%20reduced%20significantly.): This technique involves placing flexible pads between a building and its foundation, allowing the structure to move somewhat independently of the ground during an earthquake.
2. [Tuned mass dampers](https://engineering.purdue.edu/~ce573/Documents/Intro%20to%20Structural%20Motion%20Control_Chapter4.pdf#:~:text=A%20tuned%20mass%20damper%20(TMD),phase%20with%20the%20structural%20motion): Large weights placed at the top of tall buildings that move in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, helping to counteract the earthquake’s motion.
3. [Shape memory alloys](https://phys.org/news/2012-02-shape-memory-alloys-earthquake-resistant.html): These materials can “remember” their original shape after being deformed, potentially allowing buildings to return to their original position after an earthquake.
4. [Self-centering systems](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2020/8859881): These designs allow buildings to rock during an earthquake and then return to their original position, minimizing structural damage.

<figure>

![Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/CqofyeijfVJrZUTDdmnJ/orig)  

<figcaption>
Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA

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</figure>

## Seismic deconvolution and masking
[Seismic deconvolution](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8105-8_4#:~:text=Deconvolution%20is%20a%20general%20term,the%20seismic%20sources%20and%20receivers) removes effects that mask primary reflected events on a seismogram, such as absorption, reverberation, and ghosting. This technique helps obtain clearer seismic data, crucial for understanding geological structures and making informed decisions about building designs and retrofits.

Additionally, explainable artificial intelligence (AI) is also [being used](https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06682) to design masks for self-supervised seismic denoising. This approach helps suppress noise in seismic data without requiring prior knowledge of the noise itself, making it a fully automated denoising procedure. This technology can significantly improve the accuracy of seismic data interpretation, leading to better earthquake preparedness and response strategies.
## “Floating house”
One of the most intriguing innovations in earthquake-resistant housing comes from Japan. Air Danshin Systems Inc., a Japanese company, has developed a groundbreaking technology that allows houses to temporarily “float” above the ground during earthquakes. Here’s how Air Danshin’s [system](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) works:
* The house is built with an additional foundation, a sensor, and an air compressor.
* When the sensor detects the initial tremors of an earthquake, it sends a signal to the external air compressor.
* Within 0.5 to 1 second, the compressor activates and pumps compressed air between the earthquake-proof foundation and the base of the house.
* This action lifts the entire structure approximately 3 cm (about 1.2 inches) off the ground.
* The house remains elevated during the earthquake, effectively isolating it from ground movements.
* Once the tremors subside, the air is gradually released, and the house settles back onto its foundation.
Air Danshin [claims](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) that a house not in contact with the ground during an earthquake will not shake, thus preventing damage. However, this technology has limitations. The 3 cm lift height may not be sufficient for earthquakes with significant vertical movement. Additionally, the system comes with a substantial cost.

Despite these limitations, Air Danshin’s floating house technology represents an innovative approach to earthquake-resistant housing. While it may not be a complete solution to earthquake damage, it could be a valuable piece of a larger strategy for improving seismic safety.
## Economic impact and insurance
The economic toll of earthquakes can be staggering. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, the [second-most](https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/which-state-has-the-most-earthquakes-in-the-us#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20Alaska%20the,fact%20of%20life%20in%20Alaska) seismically-active U.S. states, [caused](https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/earthquakes/northridge) an estimated $20 billion in damage. Earthquake insurance can play a crucial role in recovery, but standard homeowner’s insurance policies typically don’t cover earthquake damage.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/wXmpugRBGGinFKpBiBVm/orig)   

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom

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</figure>

In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) provides most residential earthquake insurance policies. [As of 2022](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/insurance#:~:text=Despite%20experiencing%2090%25%20of%20the,California's%20residents%20have%20earthquake%20insurance.), only about 10% of California homeowners had earthquake insurance, highlighting a significant gap in financial preparedness.

While we can’t prevent earthquakes, we can certainly mitigate their impact. By focusing on structural integrity, securing non-structural elements, preparing for aftermath scenarios, fostering community preparedness, and leveraging technology, we can significantly reduce the damage and disruption caused by seismic events.

Remember, earthquake preparedness is an ongoing process, not a one-time effort. Regular assessments, updates to your preparedness plans, and staying informed about the latest safety recommendations are all part of a comprehensive approach to minimizing earthquake damage.

As we continue to improve our understanding of seismic risks and develop new mitigation techniques, we move closer to a future where earthquakes, while still formidable natural events, no longer pose the catastrophic threat they once did.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android. 

Shaking things up: How to minimize earthquake damage

Discover the mesmerizing spectacle of fire tornadoes, a natural phenomenon that showcases nature's fiery power

Nature is full of astonishing phenomena! There are the beautiful ones like rainbows, silvery clouds, and halos, and then there are the terrifying ones. We recently wrote about volcanic eruptions - it's horrifying to imagine cities being engulfed by molten lava. But there are other equally shocking spectacles - fire tornadoes.

Today, we discuss the reasons behind these phenomena and end by showcasing some of the most devastating examples.
<figure>

![Source: www.nationalgeographic.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/GoUgjdztbNiHYpUXplhR/orig)
<figcaption>
Source: www.nationalgeographic.com

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</figure>
### How They Form
A fire tornado originates when several large fire sources combine. The heated air above them becomes less dense and rapidly rises. Cooler air currents from the surrounding area replace it at ground level, further fanning the flames. The more intense the fire and the rising air above it, the faster these currents become.

Due to the centripetal motion and high wind speeds, various objects can be drawn into the fire's epicenter – from dust to trees ripped out by the wind. Above this center, burning particles spiral upwards, dragging flames with them and forming fiery columns. Some can reach heights of over 1 km.

The temperature of these whirlwinds ranges around 1000-1500 °C. Another risk they pose is their ability to "shoot" burning debris, leading to new fires nearby.

Because of the rapid ascent of air, together with fire tornadoes, a unique type of cloud usually forms - the pyrocumulus or pyrocumulonimbus clouds. We will discuss these in one of our upcoming articles.

### Where They Occur
Tornadoes can emerge anywhere extensive fires take place; they have no specific geography. For instance, in recent years, they've been frequently spotted in areas affected by intense forest fires - in the USA, Australia, Russia, Japan, and European countries.
<figure>

![Source: belta.by/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5257675/ZEDLttSqVduRBLDQdJZM/orig)

<figcaption>
Source: belta.by
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</figure>
### Examples of Fire Tornadoes
— 1923, Japan: In just 15 minutes, a fire tornado resulting from an earthquake and the fires it caused throughout Tokyo took the lives of about 40,000 people.

— 1941-1945, World War II: Due to bombings during the war, heated tornadoes raged often. One of the largest was a tornado in Hamburg in 1943. Sparked by a massive citywide fire from bombings and reaching heights of nearly 500 meters, it led to the death of around 40,000 people. In 1945, in Dresden, a fire tornado claimed more than 20,000 lives. In that same year in Kobe, Japan, a fiery tornado took 7,000 lives. Later, a similar tornado occurred in Hiroshima after the nuclear strike.

— 2011, Hungary: A tornado emerged during a fire at a plastics manufacturing plant and completely destroyed the facility.

— 2012, Australia: Fire tornadoes in this hot country are almost an annual occurrence. In 2012, a tornado formed precisely where director Chris Tendji was filming. He managed to capture the terrifying phenomenon on film.

— 2023, Chile: This disaster led to the death of over 20 people and the destruction of 800 homes.

We wish you only wonderful natural phenomena! Remember, to choose the best day for stargazing or to plan an extended trip out of town to admire spring-summer clouds, our precipitation map can assist you.

Fire Tornadoes: Nature's Fiery Spectacle

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release re

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.
## What causes earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of energy stored in the Earth’s crust. This release is typically triggered by the movement of tectonic plates along faults. These movements can be categorized into three main types of interactions:

Convergent (destructive) boundaries: When two tectonic plates collide, one plate is often forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. This process creates immense pressure and friction, leading to powerful earthquakes. A prime example of this is the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate along the west coast of North America​ (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/gGxtcqCvqZBPABIxcwPe/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Divergent (constructive) boundaries: At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other. This separation allows magma from the mantle to rise and create new crust. Earthquakes at these boundaries are generally less intense but are still significant. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate are moving apart (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/FfHvAbfraOEDekEPNTog/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Transform boundaries (faults): At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other. The San Andreas Fault in California is a notable example. The friction here causes stress to build up until it is released in an earthquake (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JdGpUDutYHuELzymSbis/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>
## Measuring earthquakes
To quantify the size and impact of earthquakes, scientists use a variety of scales and instruments.

Seismographs: Instruments that combine a seismometer, a timing device, and a recording device to detect and record ground motion caused by seismic waves. Analyzing seismograph data helps determine an earthquake’s location, depth, and magnitude​.

Richter scale: Developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter, this logarithmic scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of seismic waves. Each whole number increase on the Richter scale corresponds to a tenfold increase in measured amplitude and about 31.6 times more energy release, meaning a magnitude 7.0 earthquake would be massively more impactful than a 6.0.

Moment magnitude scale (Mw): This scale provides a more accurate measure of an earthquake’s total energy release and is widely used today, especially for large, distant, or deep earthquakes.

Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale: Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, which measure the energy released by an earthquake, the MMI scale measures the intensity of shaking and its effects on people, structures, and the Earth’s surface. This scale ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). The MMI Scale is qualitative and is based on observed effects rather than instrumental readings.

European macroseismic scale (EMS): Similar to the MMI scale, the EMS measures the intensity of an earthquake based on its observed effects. The EMS is used primarily in Europe and ranges from I (not felt) to XII (completely devastating). It takes into account factors such as building damage, ground effects, and human perception of the shaking​.
## Interesting earthquake data
**Frequency of earthquakes**: Approximately 500,000 detectable earthquakes occur worldwide each year. Of these, about 100,000 can be felt, and around 100 cause significant damage​ (USGS)​. This means that, on average, over 1,300 earthquakes occur daily, most of which are too small to be felt by humans​ (USGS)​​​.

**The largest recorded earthquake**: The most powerful earthquake ever recorded was the Great Chilean Earthquake on May 22, 1960, with a magnitude of 9.5. It caused extensive damage and triggered a tsunami that affected coastal areas across the Pacific Ocean.

**Deepest earthquakes**: While most earthquakes occur at depths of less than 70 kilometers (43 miles), some can occur at much greater depths. These deep-focus earthquakes are typically associated with subduction zones. The deepest recorded earthquake occurred in 2015 at a depth of 700 kilometers (435 miles) in the Bonin Islands, Japan.

Manmade earthquakes: Human activity can sometimes cause detectable seismic activity, a phenomenon known as induced seismicity. These “manmade earthquakes” tend to be minor, but not without exceptions. For example, a 1952 Mw 5.7 earthquake in Oklahoma is suspected to have been caused by deep injection of wastewater by the oil industry.
## Recent significant earthquakes
**2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake**: On February 6, 2023, an Mw 7.8 earthquake struck southern Turkey and northern Syria. This event caused massive destruction, leading to over 50,000 deaths and extensive damage to infrastructure. The economic losses were substantial, estimated at $148.8 billion in Turkey and $14.8 billion in Syria. The international community responded with a large-scale rescue operation involving over 141,000 individuals from 94 countries​.

**2023 Marrakesh-Safi earthquake**: On September 8, 2023, an Mw 6.9 earthquake struck the Marrakesh-Safi region in Morocco. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Morocco’s history, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,960 people and significant damage to historical landmarks.

**2023 Herat earthquakes: In October 2023**, a series of earthquakes measuring Mww 6.3 each struck the Herat Province in Afghanistan. These events caused substantial damage, with the World Health Organization estimating around 1,482 fatalities and thousands more injured​.

**2024 Noto earthquake**: On January 1, 2024, an Mw 7.5 earthquake struck the Ishikawa region of Japan, causing severe shaking and damage. This earthquake resulted in 245 deaths and significant damage to buildings and infrastructure​.

## Why understanding earthquakes matters
Understanding earthquakes is crucial for several reasons:

**Insight into Earth’s interior**: Earthquakes provide valuable information about the structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. By analyzing seismic waves, scientists can infer details about the Earth’s mantle and core.

**Preparedness and mitigation**: By studying seismic activity, scientists can identify areas at high risk for earthquakes and develop building codes and safety measures to minimize damage and casualties.

**Early warning systems**: While predicting earthquakes in advance remains beyond current scientific capabilities, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds to minutes of warning before significant shaking begins. These systems use a network of seismographs to detect the initial P-waves and send warnings to affected areas. However, these systems cannot predict the exact time, location, and intensity of future earthquakes. The Earth has numerous fault lines and spreading zones where shaking could potentially begin, making precise predictions challenging. Additionally, earthquakes often trigger a cascade of secondary natural disasters, such as landslides, dam breaks, and tsunamis, which contribute to their overall destructive potential​.

Earthquakes are a natural consequence of the dynamic processes occurring within the Earth’s crust. While they can be devastating, our growing understanding of their causes and characteristics enables us to better prepare for and mitigate their impacts. Through continued research and technological advancements, we can improve our ability to predict and respond to these powerful events, enhancing safety and resilience in earthquake-prone regions around the world.


Earthquakes: Understanding the forces beneath the Earth’s surface


A fundamentally qualitative breakthrough in measuring air humidity occurred only 300 years after da Vinci's invention. The Swiss Horace Benedict de Saussure in 1783 by

Air humidity affects people's health and well-being, food shelf life, and a successful harvest, among other things.

It was in ancient China that people first started noticing the way humidity affects their environment. Over 3000 years ago, on the shores of the Yellow River, scholars of the Shang Dynasty's royal palace began to weigh bits of charcoal and handfuls of soil. They did that right after drying the material, and then again after letting it sit in the humid open air. They inscribed the results of their experiments on [tortoise shells](https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8787). The objects changed mass, indicating humidity fluctuations in the surface air. This knowledge was a great help to merchants, builders, and all agricultural workers. 

Man of many talents
Later, Europeans also started to note the importance of humidity. The first engineer that tried to create a hygrometer (an instrument that measures air humidity) was [Leonardo da Vinci](ttps://weather.com/es-ES/espana/tiempo/news/2017-12-10-higrometro-humedad-temperatura), of course.



## Man of many talents

Later, Europeans also started to note the importance of humidity. The first engineer that tried to create a hygrometer (an instrument that measures air humidity) was [Leonardo da Vinci](https://weather.com/es-ES/espana/tiempo/news/2017-12-10-higrometro-humedad-temperatura), of course.


![Da Vinci's hygrometer drawing. Source: Codex Atlanticus: https://codex-atlanticus.it/#/Detail?detail=30](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/UMlqNjhloTmQNQmRBkco/orig)  

In late 15th century, he conducted experiments to study the compression and expansion of organic matter of different weight at different humidity levels. Finally, he came up with the idea of using a scale with two pans balanced against each other. He put a piece of waterproof beeswax on one pan and a permeable cotton ball on the other. When the humidity level changed, the cotton ball absorbed moisture from the air and grew heavier, [tipping the balance](https://www.meteored.com.ar/noticias/ciencia/leonardo-da-vinci-un-genio-que-tambien-aporto-a-la-meteorologia-higrometro-anemometro-invento.html). But such a hygrometer seriously lacked precision.

## Cherchez la femme rousse
A proper breakthrough in humidity measurement was only made 300 years after da Vinci's discovery. In 1783 in Switzerland, Horace Bénédict de Saussure invented a hygrometer that used... a human hair.

What makes hair useful? It's hygroscopic. In other words, it can absorb moisture and extend when the air gets more humid. In a more dry environment, hair shrinks back to its previous state. That happens because of keratin, which is the protein prevalent in the chemical composition of hair. The superpower of keratin is that it absorbs moisture from the environment. When the air is humid, hair begins to absorb the moisture, becomes heavier, changes structure, gets wavy and curly, and [extends](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-hair-hygrometer/).

So what did de Saussure come up with? He created a hair tension hygrometer. Basically, he took a human hair, attached a weight to it to create tension, and connected it to a scale with a pointer. Depending on the humidity, the hair would expand or contract, and you could see the changes on the scale.


![Saussure's hair hygrometer. Source: Museo Galileo  https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/gallery/SaussureHairHygrometer.html](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/avlYSgBcvfZxqCsiYNlU/orig)  

But not all hair is equally hygroscopic. Red hair is the most hygroscopic, because it's mostly made of pheomelanin, which doesn't really protect the hair from damage, makes it highly porous, and causes it to [absorb moisture quickly](https://www.news-medical.net/health/Genetics-of-Hair-Color.aspx). The type of red hair that's the most sensitive to humidity changes is women's hair. Genetically, it's the least dense type of hair.

Of course, de Saussure and his successors didn't know such things 200 years ago. But experiments have shown that women's red hair is best suited to the purpose.

Meteorologists have been following this rule for dozens of years: if you want to create a high-quality hygrometer, cherchez la femme rousse (French for "look for a red-haired woman").

## A less poetic approach
Further on, meteorology developed in more prosaic ways. Horsehair, baleen, catgut (cattle intestines), and synthetic fiber began to be used in tension hygrometers. By the way, hair hygrometers were produced in the USSR right until its collapse, and people often used them at home. At the same time, scientists were developing condensation hygrometers. Those were used to measure relative humidity by determining the dew point, that is, the temperature at which the vapour in the atmosphere condenses into dew.

Then there were psychrometers, or two mercury thermometers with a wet and a dry bulb. Their temperature difference was used to measure the relative air humidity. Psychrometer readings provided [far more accurate information](https://www.britannica.com/science/hygrometer).

Many other types of hygrometers were invented in the 19th–20th centuries. Of course, it all culminated in the electronic hygrometer which is the most popular type of hygrometer today. 


Why did meteorologists of the past need red-headed women's hair?

Dust storms, also known as sandstorms, are captivating and powerful natural phenomena that occur when strong winds lift dust and sand particles into the atmosphere, creat

Dust storms, also known as sandstorms, are captivating and powerful natural phenomena that occur when strong winds lift dust and sand particles into the atmosphere, creating dense, moving clouds. These storms are most prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions, where the wind easily picks up loose soil. Their impacts are far-reaching, significantly affecting the environment and human health. This article delves into the intricacies of dust storms, exploring their formation, regional characteristics, notable cases, and the challenges they pose.


Dust storms, also known as sandstorms, are captivating and powerful natural phenomena that occur when strong winds lift dust and sand particles into the atmosphere, creating dense, moving clouds. These storms are most prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions, where the wind easily picks up loose soil. Their impacts are far-reaching, significantly affecting the environment and human health. This article delves into the intricacies of dust storms, exploring their formation, regional characteristics, notable cases, and the challenges they pose.

<figure>

![Source: carececo.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/LwYRyHbzMLWwJswyLuaY/orig)

<figcaption>
Source: carececo.org

</figcaption>
</figure>


## How dust storms form

Dust storms [typically form](https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=959737) in desert-like conditions where the soil is dry and loose. The primary driver is strong winds, which can be generated by various weather systems, including cold fronts, thunderstorms, and intense heat waves. In Central Asia, dust storms often result from the intrusion of cold polar fronts from areas like the Ural Mountains, Siberia, and the Volga region. These fronts bring strong winds that, when combined with high temperatures and a lack of precipitation due to high-pressure systems, lead to the desiccation of soil and vegetation, making the land more susceptible to erosion.

Soil erosion during dust storms involves the detachment and transport of soil particles. As wind speed increases, it exerts force on the soil surface, lifting particles into the air. Finer particles can be carried over long distances, while heavier ones settle closer to the source. This transportation of dust can have significant implications for regions downwind of the storm’s origin.

## Environmental and health impacts

Environmentally, dust storms [contribute](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228433912_Impacts_of_Sand_and_Dust_Storms_on_Agriculture_and_Potential_Agricultural_Applications_of_a_SDSWS#:~:text=Sand%20and%20dust%20storms%20have,the%20process%20of%20land%20degradation) to soil degradation and loss of agricultural productivity. Removing topsoil and burying seedlings can lead to reduced fertility, affecting crop yields and food security. Furthermore, dust deposition on water bodies can alter their chemistry and impact aquatic ecosystems.

From a health perspective, dust storms pose [significant risks](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351827316_Global_Health_Impacts_of_Dust_Storms_A_Systematic_Review). The fine particles in dust can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to a range of health issues, including respiratory infections, asthma, and other lung diseases. Vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are particularly at risk during dust storms.

## Frequency and intensity

### Central Asia

The [frequency and intensity](http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/63528/1/Gulnura%20Issanova_2017.pdf) of dust storms vary across Central Asia. In Kazakhstan, the number of days with dust storms increases from northwest to southeast. In the southern part of Kazakhstan, dust storms are especially frequent in sandy deserts and river valleys. The average number of days with dust storms along the Syrdarya and Ili rivers is 28, with a maximum of 67; along the southern shore of Balkhash Lake, it is 30 and 103, respectively.

In the northern desert subzone of Central Asia, an average of 20–30 days of dust storms have been observed between April and October. In the southern subzone, dust storms occur year-round. In the central Karakum Desert, the annual mean frequency of dust storms is 60 events. In the eastern Karakum Desert, this figure is even higher at 62 dust storms, and in the western Karakum Desert, an average of 67 storms has been observed.

The duration of dust storms varies widely, from just a few minutes to over 20 hours. In the northern deserts, 40–60% of dust events last an average of 1.5–5.4 hours. More prolonged dust storms, lasting between 5.5 and 10 hours, represent 30–40% of the total dust events during the year.

#### The Aral Sea crisis

The desiccation of the Aral Sea has led to the [formation](http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/63528/1/Gulnura%20Issanova_2017.pdf) of the Aralkum Desert, a new and potent source of dust storms in Central Asia. As the sea has shrunk, it has exposed a vast area of dry, sandy seabed rich in salts and pollutants. This area is now highly susceptible to wind erosion, generating massive dust storms transporting salt and toxic substances across the region.

Dust storm frequency in the Aral Sea region has increased dramatically since the 1980s. Weather stations near the former shoreline have recorded up to 90 dust storms annually in recent years, compared to just a handful in the 1960s. These storms can transport an estimated 15–75 million metric tons of dust and toxic salts annually, affecting areas up to 500 km (310 mi) away.

## Notable occurrences and regional features

### Kazakhstan

Dust storms are particularly prevalent in certain regions due to unique geographical and climatic conditions. Kazakhstan, for example, frequently experiences dust storms, especially in the Mangistau, Kyzylorda, Atyrau, and Aktobe regions. These areas are characterized by extreme temperature fluctuations and geological conditions that facilitate the breakdown of rocks into dust-sized particles, which are easily carried by strong winds. The absence of permanent rivers and the presence of only seasonal streams exacerbate the situation by limiting soil moisture, which would otherwise help bind the soil particles together.

In winter 2023 alone, the Mangistau, Kyzylorda, and Atyrau regions of Kazakhstan [were struck](https://www.kazhydromet.kz/uploads/calendar/192/year_file/6646ff553af2710-05-2024_obzor-osobennostey-klimata_kazahstan-za-2023.pdf) by a series of massive dust storms, some lasting as long as 36 hours. The dust storms of 2023 in particular were caused by the rapid movement of a large anticyclone, which resulted in significant pressure gradients and, consequently, an increase in easterly winds, which blew as fast as 16–20 m/s (36–45 mph). Since there was no snow cover in these regions, the intensified winds led to the formation of dust storms. some lasting as long as 36 hours. These storms were triggered by the rapid movement of a large anticyclone, which resulted in significant pressure gradients and an increase in easterly winds (16–20 m/s, or 36–45 mph). The lack of snow cover in these regions allowed the intensified winds to lift large amounts of dust, leading to severe dust storms.

<figure>

![Source: wmo.int/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/vwoyZtmcihNQfteMGUgc/orig)

<figcaption>
Source: wmo.int

</figcaption>
</figure>


The Mangistau region, [known](https://gtg.webhost.uoradea.ro/PDF/GTG-2-2020/gtg.29201-476.pdf) for its continental climate with extreme temperature variations — from over 40°C (104°F) in summer to below -30°C (-22°F) in winter — is particularly prone to dust storms. These temperature extremes contribute to the weathering and fragmentation of rocks, making them more susceptible to wind erosion. Additionally, the region’s geological composition includes easily erodible materials, such as sand dunes, which are readily transported by strong winds. In May 2024, an extensive anticyclone caused winds of 15–20 meters per second (34–45 mph), [leading](https://en.tengrinews.kz/disasters/mangistau-oblast-in-western-kazakhstan-hit-by-dust-storm-259603/) to another [forecasted](https://www.grainunion.kz/en/article/3135) dust storm in the region.

Kyzylorda, situated between the deserts of Betpak-Dala and Kyzylkum, is another hotspot for dust storms. The region’s arid climate and sparse vegetation make it particularly [vulnerable](https://www.kazhydromet.kz/uploads/files/63/file/5ec1460bf1953-oblast.pdf) to soil erosion. In 2023, Kyzylorda [experienced](https://en.tengrinews.kz/disasters/mangistau-oblast-in-western-kazakhstan-hit-by-dust-storm-259603/) several severe dust storms, with wind speeds reaching 25 m/s (56 mph). These storms, driven by strong pressure gradients and powerful easterly winds, were also the result of a large anticyclone sweeping through the area.

Atyrau and Aktobe regions share [similar](https://www.kazhydromet.kz/uploads/files_calendar/3436/file/6461c86e5f1cfbp-po-rk-na-iyun-2023-g-ot-15-05-2023g.pdf) climatic and geological conditions, leading to frequent dust storms. In April 2024, strong winds and an anticyclone once again [contributed](https://en.tengrinews.kz/disasters/mangistau-oblast-in-western-kazakhstan-hit-by-dust-storm-259603/) to the formation of dust storms in these regions. Historical data indicates that dust storms are a recurrent issue here, further exacerbated by the lack of permanent water bodies and the prevalence of loose soil.

### Uzbekistan

However, dust storms in Central Asia are not confined to Kazakhstan. In November 2021, a severe dust storm [formed](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-42256-1) in Uzbekistan, [triggered](https://arroma.uiowa.edu/docs/publication/paper_pdf/2023/Xi_2023_et_al_2023.pdf#:~:text=Climatologically%2C%20dust%20outbreaks%20in%20Central,by%20seasonally%20high%20precipitation%20and) by the front part of a cold polar anticyclone from the Ural-Volga region. This storm struck the central and eastern parts of Uzbekistan, spreading thick haze across the region. The most severe effects were felt in Tashkent and the Fergana Valley, where visibility dropped to 200 m (650 ft) due to the dense atmospheric dust.

This storm was exacerbated by the extremely strong summer heatwave of 2021 in Kazakhstan, where temperatures reached an unprecedented 46.5°C (115.7°F). The long-lasting drought dried up the soil to a depth of 50 cm (20 in), leading to significant soil cover denudation. This event, the worst since 1871, underscores the increasing aridity of Central Asia and the potential for more frequent and severe dust storms in the future.

### Turkey

Turkey, particularly its central and eastern regions, experiences frequent dust storms due to its proximity to the Middle Eastern deserts and its own semi-arid areas. The country is affected by both locally generated dust and long-range transport from the Sahara Desert and Arabian Peninsula.

In recent years, Turkey has seen an increase in the frequency and intensity of dust storms. In September 2020, a massive dust storm [engulfed](https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2020/09/12/Turkey-s-capital-Ankara-hit-by-freak-sandstorm-six-people-injured) Ankara, the capital city, turning the sky orange and reducing visibility to mere meters. This storm was caused by strong winds picking up dust from the drought-stricken plains of central Anatolia. In April 2022, Istanbul [experienced](https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/dust-brings-air-quality-to-dangerously-low-level-in-turkey/news) a severe dust storm that originated from North Africa. The storm caused air quality to plummet, with PM10 levels reaching up to 811 μg/m³, far exceeding the World Health Organization’s guideline of 50 μg/m³.

These events highlight Turkey’s urban areas’ vulnerability to local and long-range dust transport. The country’s position at the crossroads of different climatic regions makes it particularly susceptible to dust storms originating from various sources.

### Brazil

While not typically associated with dust storms, Brazil has experienced notable events, particularly in its drier northeastern region. These occurrences are often linked to prolonged drought conditions and land use changes. The conversion of native vegetation to agricultural land in parts of Brazil has increased soil erosion, potentially exacerbating the risk of dust storms in certain areas.

The semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil, known as the Sertão, is most prone to dust storms. This area experiences irregular rainfall and periodic severe droughts, creating conditions conducive to dust storm formation. In September 2020, the state of São Paulo [experienced](https://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/47655/20210930/haboob-in-brazil-dust-storm-turned-day-into-night.htm) an unusual dust storm that turned day into night. This event was attributed to a combination of severe drought, strong winds, and wildfires, highlighting the complex interplay between climate change, land management, and extreme weather events.

Unlike the more frequent dust storms seen in arid regions of Central Asia or the Middle East, Brazil’s events are less common but can be particularly intense when they occur. They serve as a reminder that dust storms can affect a wide range of climatic zones, especially as climate change alters traditional weather patterns.

## Mitigation and adaptation strategies

Addressing the challenges posed by dust storms requires a combination of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Mitigation efforts focus on reducing the sources of dust, such as improving land management practices to prevent soil erosion. This can include measures like planting vegetation to stabilize the soil, using windbreaks to reduce wind speed at the surface, and implementing sustainable agricultural practices.

Adaptation strategies involve preparing communities to cope with the impacts of dust storms. This can include developing early warning systems to alert residents of impending storms, improving infrastructure to withstand dust-related damage, and educating the public about protective measures to reduce health risks. For instance, wearing masks and staying indoors during dust storms can help minimize exposure to harmful particles.

## Future outlook

As climate change continues to alter weather patterns, the frequency and intensity of dust storms in Asia [may increase](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-42256-1). Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can exacerbate soil desiccation and erosion, potentially leading to more frequent dust events. This underscores the importance of ongoing research to better understand the dynamics of dust storms and their interactions with the climate system.

Future research directions could include studying the long-term impacts of dust deposition on ecosystems, exploring the role of dust in atmospheric processes, and developing more accurate models to predict dust storm occurrences. Additionally, efforts to mitigate the impacts of dust storms through improved land management practices and early warning systems will be crucial for protecting communities and ecosystems in Central Asia and beyond.

Dust storms are a complex and multifaceted natural phenomenon with significant environmental, health, and economic impacts. Understanding their formation, regional characteristics, and effects is crucial for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. As the region faces the challenges of a changing climate and ongoing environmental pressures, addressing the risks posed by dust storms will require a concerted effort from scientists, policymakers, and local communities. By enhancing our knowledge and preparedness, we can better protect populations and ecosystems from the dusty fury of these powerful storms.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app [Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android](https://redirect.appmetrica.yandex.com/serve/1037341602000971858). 


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Why did meteorologists of the past need red-headed women's hair?

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